See also:

• BOOK

We define as follows: The sum of two straight lines a and b means a straight line c which may be divided in two parts equal respectively to a and b. This sum is denoted by a+b. The difference of two lines a and b (in symbols, a–b) means a line c which when added to b gives a; that is, a–b=c if b+c=a. The product of two lines a and b (in symbols, ab) means the area of the rectangle contained by the lines a and b. For aa, which means the square on the line a, we write See also:

• A2(z)

5. (a+b) (a–b)+b2=a2. 6. (a+b) (a–b)+b2=a2. 7. a2+(a–b)2=2a(a– b) +P. 8. 4(a+b)a+b2= (2a+b)2. 9. (a+b)2+(a – b)2=2a2+2b2. To. (a+b)2+(a – b)2=2a2+2b2. It will be seen that 5 and 6, and also 9 and To, are identical.

In See also:

• EUCLID
• EUCLID [EucLEIDES]

(3), ab+(cd+ef) =ab+cd+ef . . (4). The brackets mean that the terms in the See also:

• BRACKET

In symbols this gives, in the simplest case, a(b+c) =ab+ac (6) and (b+c)a=ba+ca ' To these laws, which have been investigated by See also:

• SIR

5 and 6 may also be written thus (a+b) (a–b)=a=–b2.Prop. 7, which is an easy consequence of Prop. 4, may be trans-formed. If we denote by c the line a+b, so that c=a+b, a=c–b, c2+(c – b)2=2c(c – b)+b2 =2c2 – 2bc+b2. Subtracting c2 from both sides, and See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

11 and 14. If written in the above symbolic See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

We need only mention the problem of squaring the circle (see CIRCLE). In the present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

This point is called the " centre " of the circle. Of the new See also:

• DEFINITIONS

1 requires to find it when the circle is given, i.e. when its circumference is drawn. To solve this problem a chord is drawn (that is, any two points in the circumference are joined), and through the point where this is bisected a perpendicular to it is erected. Euclid then proves, first, that no point off this perpendicular can be the centre, hence that the centre must See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

The converse to this gives Prop. 3, which may be stated thus If a straight line through the centre of a circle bisect a chord, then it is perpendicular to the chord, and if it be perpendicular to the chord it bisects it. An easy consequence of this is the following theorem, which is essentially the same as Prop. 4: Two chords of a circle, of which neither passes through the centre, cannot bisect each other. These last three theorems are fundamental for the theory of the circle. It is to be remarked that Euclid never proves that a straight line cannot have more than two points in common with a circumference. § 29. The next two propositions (5 and 6) might be replaced by a single and a simpler theorem, viz: Two circles which have a common centre, and whose circumferences have one point in common, coincide. Or, more in agreement with Euclid's form: Two different circles, whose circumferences have a point in common, cannot have the same centre. That Euclid treats of two cases is characteristic of Greek mathematics. The next two propositions (7 and 8) again belong together. They may be combined thus:-- If from a point in a plane of a circle, which is not the centre, straight lines be drawn to the different points of the circumference, then of all these lines one is the shortest, and one the longest, and these lie both in that straight line which joins the given point to the centre.

Of all the remaining lines each is equal to one and only one other, and these equal lines lie on opposite sides of the shortest or longest, and make equal angles with them. Euclid distinguishes the two cases where the given point lies within or without the circle, omitting the case where it lies in the circumference. From the last proposition it follows that if from a point more than two equal straight lines can be drawn to the circumference, this point must be the centre. This is Prop. 9. As a consequence of this we get If the circumferences of the two circles have three points in common they coincide. For in this case the two circles have a common centre, because from the centre of the one three equal lines can be drawn to points on the circumference of the other. But two circles which have a common centre, and whose circumferences have a point in common, coincide. (Compare above statement of Props. 5 and 6.) This theorem may also be stated thus: Through three points only one circumference may be drawn; or, Three points determine a circle. Euclid does not give the theorem in this form. He proves, how-ever, that the two circles cannot cut another in more than two points (Prop. to), and that two circles cannot See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

13). § 30. Propositions 11 and 12 assert that if two circles touch, then the point of contact lies on the line joining their centres. This gives two propositions, because the circles may touch either internally or externally. § 31. Propositions 14 and 15 relate to the length of chords. The first says that equal chords are equidistant from the centre, and that chords which are equidistant from the centre are equal; Whilst Prop. 15 compares unequal chords, viz. Of all chords the See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

The proposition is meant to show that the straight line at the end point of the diameter and at right angles to it is a tangent. The proposition itself does not state this. It runs thus: Prop. 16. The straight line drawn at right angles to the diameter of a circle, from the extremity of it, falls without the circle; and no straight line can be drawn from the extremity, between that straight line and the circumference, so as not to cut the circle. Cbrollary.—The straight line at right angles to a diameter drawn through the end point of it touches the circle. The statement of the proposition and its whole treatment show the difficulties which the tangents presented to Euclid. Prop. 17 solves the problem through a given point, either in the circumference or without it, to draw a tangent to a given circle. Closely connected with Prop. 16 are Props. 18 and 19, which' state (Prop.

18), that the line joining the centre of a circle to the point 'of contact of a tangent is perpendicular to the tangent; and conversely (Prop. 19), that the straight line through the point of contact of, and perpendicular to, a tangent to a circle passes through the centre of the circle. § 33. The See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

23. On the same straight line, and on the same side of it, there cannot be two similar segments of circles, not coinciding with one another; Prop. 24. Similar segments of circles on equal straight lines are equal to one another. The problem Prop. 25. A segment of a circle being given to describe the circle of which it is a segment, may be solved much more easily by aid of the construction described in relation to Prop. t, III., in § 27. § 34• There follow four theorems connecting the angles at the centre, the arcs into which they See also:

• DIVIDE

27. (converse to Prop. 26). In equal circles the angles which stand on equal arcs are equal to one another, whether they be at the centres or the circumferences; Prop. 28. In equal circles equal straight lines (equal chords) cut off equal arcs, the greater equal to the greater, and the less equal to the less; Prop. 29 (converse to Prop. 28). In equal circles equal arcs are subtended by equal straight lines. § 35. Other important consequences of Props. 20-22 are: Prop.

31. In a circle the angle in a semicircle is a right angle; but the angle in a segment greater than a semicircle is less than a right angle; and the angle in a segment less than a semicircle is greater than a right angle; Prop. 32. If a straight line touch a circle, and from the point of contact a straight line be drawn cutting the circle, the angles which this line makes with the line touching the circle shall be equal to the angles which are in the alternate segments of the circle. 36. Propositions 30, 33, 34, contain problems which are solved by aid of the propositions preceding them: Prop. 30. To bisect a given arc, that is, to divide it into two equal parts ; Prop. 33. On a given straight line to describe a segment of a circle containing an angle equal to a given rectilineal angle; Prop. 34.. From a given circle to cut off a segment containing an an le equal to a given rectilineal angle.

37. If we draw chords through a point A within a circle, they will each be divided by A into two segments. Between these segments the law holds that the rectangle contained by them has the same area on whatever chord through A the segments are taken. The value of this rectangle changes, of course, with the position of A. A similar theorem holds if the point A be taken without the circle. On every straight line through A, which cuts the circle in two points B and C, we have two segments AB and AC, and the rectangles contained by them are again equal to one another, and equal to the square on a tangent drawn from A to the circle. The first of these theorems gives Prop. 35, and the second Prop. 36, with its corollary, whilst Prop. 37, the last of Book III., gives the converse to Prop. 36. The first two theorems may be combined in one: If through a point A in the plane of a circle a straight line be drawn cutting the circle in B and C, then the rectangle AB.AC has a See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

Prop. 37 may be stated thus: If from a point A without a circle a line be drawn cutting the circle in B and C, and another line to a point D on the circle, and AB.AC= AD2, then the line AD touches the circle at D. It is not difficult to prove also the converse to the general See also:

• PRO