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WRITING

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Originally appearing in Volume V21, Page 439 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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WRITING deals, chiefly from the anthropological standpoint, with See also:

primitive attempts to See also:record ideas in an intelligible See also:form, e.g. with " See also:knot-signs," " See also:message-sticks," picture-writing and the like. See also:PHONETICS covers the whole subject of speech sounds and See also:pronunciation, the See also:organs of speech and See also:national See also:sound systems. Supplementary, from another-point of view, to the See also:article See also:ALPHABET is a See also:complete See also:series of articles on the letters of the See also:English alphabet. In these articles the See also:history of the individual letters is traced from the Phoenician through Aramaic, See also:Greek and See also:Roman to See also:modern times. All these articles may be read in connexion with a See also:comparative table in the article ALPHABET (ad fin.), which shows in parallel columns the earliest equivalents of the modern English letters, i.e. Brahmi, Kharosthi, See also:oldest 'Ethiopic, SabHan, Nashki, Tema,-Sindjirli, the Moabite See also:stone, Phoenician, Greek, Latin, See also:Cyrillic and Glagolitic. Another important comparative table of written signs is contained in the article See also:SLAVS, showing the various Cyrillic, Glagolitic and Latin letters used by the Slav peoples. Passing from articles dealing with the method and See also:general subject-See also:matter of See also:philology, the student will find articles on the See also:great families of See also:languages, each with its subordinate articles on See also:special languages and dialects. r. Indo-See also:European Languages.—Of articles on See also:language-families, the most important is that under the heading INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. This great See also:division, which is dealt with from the comparative standpoint in the second See also:part of the article PHILOLOGY, is under its own heading treated in detail. The article begins with a sub-See also:classification into two See also:main See also:groups—the so-called (A) centum and (B) satem groups—each of which is further divided into four sections.

In accordance with this classification there are See also:

separate articles on the individual See also:ancient and modern languages and dialects. A. (1) GREEK LANGUAGE (supplemented by sections under See also:HOMER, See also:DORIANS, &C.); (2) LATIN LANGUAGE (with OSCA LINGUA, See also:IGUVIUM, &c., and articles on the See also:Italic tribes and places, e.g. See also:VENETI, See also:CAERE); (3)See also:Celtic, s.v. See also:CELT (with subsidiary articles); and (4) See also:Teutonic, S.D. TEUTONIC LANGUAGES, SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES, and the like. The modern descendants of these languages are all further treated separately. Thus following LATIN LANGUAGE iS the article See also:ROMANCE LANGUAGES, which traces the development of the Latin See also:tongue during its See also:gradual differentiation into See also:Italian, See also:French, See also:Spanish, Rumanian, &c.; while a more detailed See also:account of these will be found under ITALIAN LANGUAGE; FRENCH LANGUAGE; See also:SPAIN: Language; See also:RUMANIA: Language. There is also a special article PROVENCAL LANGUAGE, dealing with the Romanic speech of See also:southern See also:France. The Teutonic languages are similarly dealt with in detail under ENGLISH LANGUAGE (including Anglo-Saxon); DUTCH LANGUAGE; See also:GERMAN LANGUAGE. SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGE itself includes Icelandic, See also:Norwegian, See also:Swedish, Danish. a B. In the satem See also:group of the Indo-European See also:family the four divisions are as follows: (I) Indo-Iranian or See also:Aryan.

This division may be sub-divided into (a) Indo-Iranian, treated mainly in the article See also:

PERSIA: Language and Literature (including Zend, Old, See also:Middle and New See also:Persian, and the modern dialects), and (b) See also:Indian. The Indian languages ,are discussed primarily under INDOARYAN LANGUAGES, which describes the relations of Pisaca, See also:Sanskrit, See also:Prakrit, and gives a paradigm of the various languages of.the three great divisions of See also:India. This central article refers to the separate articles PISACA, SANSKRIT and PRAKRIT, which in turn are supplemented by a number of articles on particular languages. Of these reference may be made to See also:BENGALI; See also:BIHARI; See also:GUJARATI AND See also:RAJASTHANI; See also:HINDOSTANI; See also:KASHMIRI; See also:MARATHI; See also:PALI. The gipsy languages, which may probably be assigned to the Indo-Iranian division, are described under Gums. (2) The account of Armenian will be found under ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. (3) The, Balto-See also:Slavonic Languages. Of these the three comprised in the Baltic group, viz. Lithuanian, Lettic and Old Prussian, are described under the heading See also:LITHUANIANS AND LETTS. For the Slavonic group, the See also:chief article is SLAVS: Language, which deals with the elements See also:common to all the Slavonic See also:tongues, with their See also:early history and differentiation. It contains a comparative table of alphabets. It is supplemented by an article OLD SLAVONIC, and by further See also:information under the headings See also:RUSSIA, See also:BULGARIA, See also:SERVIA, See also:POLAND, BOHEMIA, CROATIA-SLAVONIA, See also:SLOVAKS, See also:SLOVENES, See also:SORBS, See also:KASHUBES, See also:POLABS.

(4) The Albanian dialects are treated under See also:

ALBANIA. 2. Semitic Languages.—At the heading of this See also:section stands the article SEMITIC LANGUAGES, supplemented by See also:HEBREW LANGUAGE, ARAMAIC LANGUAGES, and linguistic sections under See also:PHOENICIA, See also:ETHIOPIA, and the like. 3. Hamitic Languages.—The central article in this family is HAMITIC LANGUAGES, which is supplemented, so far as the Cushitic or Ethiopian group is concerned, by further information in the articles See also:EGYPT; ETHIOPIA; See also:ABYSSINIA; See also:SOMALILAND; and, so far as the Libyan group is concerned, by the articles See also:BERBERS and See also:KABYLES. 4. The chief feature of the Monosyllabic family is the section Language under See also:CHINA, supplemented again by similar sections in articles on other countries of See also:south-eastern See also:Asia, and by the article TIBETO-BURMAN LANGUAGES. There is also a language section under See also:Japan which discusses the See also:affinities between See also:Chinese, Korean and See also:Japanese. 5. The Ural-Altaic family is described in outline in the article URAL-ALTAIC, which gives the general relationships of See also:Turkish, Finno-Ugrian, Mongol and Manchu, and of See also:minor sub-divisions such as Syryenian, Mordvinian and Votyak. Turkish is discussed in the article See also:TURKS: Language, which deals with Osmanli proper and the Tatar-Turkish languages generally. The article FINNO-UGRIAN is a comparative survey dealing with the language of the Finns, Lapps, See also:Samoyedes, &c.; while Magyar is treated separately in See also:HUNGARY: Language.

Under See also:

MONGOLS there is a special section Language, discussing the three groups of See also:East Mongol, See also:West Mongol (including See also:Kalmuck) and Buriat. 6. The See also:principal languages of southern India, e.g. Tamil, See also:Malayalam, See also:Kanarese, See also:Telugu, &c., are dealt with generally under the heading See also:DRAVIDIAN; while there is a separate article See also:TAMILS, containing a section on their language; and brief notes under the headings See also:BRAHUI, TELUGU, MALAYALAM, &c. y and 8. The scattered languages of the See also:Malay-Polynesian family and other Oceanic peoples are treated principally in the article See also:MALAYS, which further information is given under the headings See also:POLYNESIA; See also:SAMOA; See also:JAVA; See also:NEGRITOS, See also:BATTAS, &C. q. The Caucasian family is described chiefly in the article See also:GEORGIA: See also:Ethnology. Further information will be found in See also:CAUCASIA: Ethnology. to. Of the remaining European languages only two need special. mention: Basque, which is treated in a special section under the heading See also:BASQUES; and the lost See also:Etruscan, which is treated under See also:ETRURIA and LATIN LANGUAGE. Ir.

The principal languages of southern and central See also:

Africa are treated fully under See also:BANTU LANGUAGES. There is a brief account of the Bushman language under See also:BUSHMEN, and of the Hottentot languages under See also:HOTTENTOTS. 12. Intermediate See also:African Languages.—Among the numerous languages spoken by the See also:people of the great central See also:belt of the African See also:continent, the most important is the See also:Hausa, described under that heading. 13. See also:America.—The whole question of the languages of the See also:North See also:American See also:Indians is dealt with in the article INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN, which contains an elaborate linguistic paradigm. See also:Bibliographical information will be found in practically all the above headings. In addition to the most modern authorities there quoted, there will be found in the article See also:DICTIONARY a very full See also:list of older lexicographical See also:works. The above See also:summary does not purport to See also:present dogmatically a rigid philological classification. It disregards many problems, and is intended solely to enable the student readily to find the material of which he may be in See also:search.

End of Article: WRITING

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