See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Apart from Ceuta, Spain possesses on the Moroccan seaboard See also:

• MELILLA

The best harbours are to be found on the rias or See also:

• FJORD, or FIORD

The passes across the Cantabrian Mountains in the north are tolerably numerous, and several of them are crossed by See also:

• RAILWAYS

It is the Montes Carpetani of the ancients, and a portion of it (due north of Madrid) still bears the name of Carpetanos. Composed almost entirely of See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

The Serra da Estrella, in Portugal, is usually regarded as a See also:

• FOURTH

The only two important See also:

• LOWLAND

These five rivers, as also the smaller Jiicar and See also:

• SEGURA (anc. Tader)

Around it the deposits of the See also:

• JURASSIC

Another tract, about 500 sq. kilometres in extent, runs Siluro-Cambrian Archaean and Metamorphic V• •'' Plutonic Rocks = Volcanic Rocks from the province of Cordova into that of See also:

• BADAJOZ
• BADAJOZ (formerly sometimes written Badajos)

The higher members comprise massive hippurite limestones, and in the Pyrenean See also:

• DISTRICT

The largest tract of them is to be seen to the south of the Cantabrian chain; but another, of hardly inferior extent, flanks the Sierra de Guadarrama, and spreads out over the great See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

The northern and north-western maritime provinces, on the other hand, have a climate as equable, and as moist, as that of the west of England or See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

The treeless mostly steppe-like valley with a See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

See also:

• ROSES, WARS OF THE

0 0 0 Table-land zone Leon 2600 37 73 53 19 Madrid . . 2150 41 76 56 15 Southern zone San Fernando 90 52 75 63 30 Malaga 75 54 79 70 Mediterranean Murcia 140 49 79 63 14 zone Mahon — 52 77 64 27 Bilbao 50 46 70 58 46 Northern See also:

• MARL (from O. Fr. marle, Late Lat. margila, dim. of marga; cf. Du. and Ger. Mergel)

Morena, where the ladanum See also:

• BUSH

Here only are to be found rich grassy meadows covered with flowers such as are seen in English See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

A different aspect is presented by the grass steppes of Murcia, La Mancha, the plateaus of See also:

• GUADIX

The See also:

• FLAMINGO (Port. Flamingo, Span. Flamenco)

. 27,935 1,477,915 1,778,155 1,923,310 6o.8 Madrid . . . . 3,084 475,785 683,484 775,034 251.3 See also:

• GUADALAJARA

. 5,480 333,356 342,988 338,828 61.8 Logrono . . . . 1,946 173,812 183,430 189,376 97'3 S . . . 2,108 214,441 249,116 276,003 130.9 Avila .antand.er . . . 3,042 164,039 195,321 200,457 65.9 Segovia . . . . 2,635 146,839 155,927 159,243 60'4 Soria . . . . 3,983 147,468 157,008 150,462 37.7 Palencia . . .

. 3,256 185,970 189,349 192,473 59.1 Valladolid . . . 2,922 244,023 271,162 278,561 95'3 Asturias . . . . 4,205 524,529 615,844 627,069 149'I Oviedo . . . 4,205 524,529 615,844 627,069 149.1 Leon 14,862 861,434 984,711 982,393 66.1 Salamanca 4,829 263,516 320,588 320,765 66.4 See also:

• ZAMORA

. . 3,360 315,664 345,929 359,013 106.8 Granada . . . 4,928 444,629 482,787 492,460 99.9 Malaga . . . 2,812 451,406 523,915 511,989 182.1 Cordova . . . . 5,299 351,536 413,883 455,859 85'8 Jaen . 5,203 345,879 428,152 474,490 91'2 Cadiz (with Ceuta) . 2,834 390,192 423,261 452,659 159'7 Seville . . . . 5,428 463,486 535,687 555,256 100.4 Huelva .

. . . 3,913 174,391 240,067 260,880 66.6 Valencia 8,830 1,246,485 1,461,453 1,587,533 179.7 Castellon de la Plana 2,495 260,919 292,952 310,828 124.5 Valencia 4,150 606,608 730,916 806,556 194'3 Alicante 2,185 378,958 437,685 470,149 215'1 Murcia 10,190 582,087 720,843 815,864 80.o See also:

• ALBACETE

2,505 320,593 348,606 337,964 134'9 Aragon 18,294 880,643 922,554 912,711 49.8 See also:

• HUESCA
• HUESCA (anc. Osca)

. 1,175 96,398 94,165 96,385 82.0 Balearic Islands . . 1,935 262,893 313,480 311,649 161.1 Canary Islands . . 2,807 234,046 301,963 358,564 127.5 194,700 15,464,340 117,667,256 118,618,086 ~ 95.6 ocellata), which sometimes attains 3 f t. in length and is very abundant; the Platydactylus saccicularis, the grey See also:

• AMPHISBAENA (a Greek word, from &pegs, both ways, and flaivav, to go)

The best See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

of which is the above-mentioned See also:

• NET

Spain occupies an unsurpassed geographical position; its resources are rich, varied and to some extent unexploited; its inhabitants include the See also:

• BASQUES

From 1850 onwards the rate of construction increased apace, and during the last See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

All three schemes were ratified in 1904 by the Cortesand an even larger proportion of the tramways and narrow-gauge railways, especially in mining districts, have been constructed and worked with foreign See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

In general there has been consider-able improvement in the condition of agriculture since the introduction of railways, and in 9very province there is a royal See also:

• COMMISSIONER

Sometimes the water of entire rivers or vast artificial reservoirs (pdntanos) is used in feeding a dense network of canals distributed over plains many square miles in extent. Such plains in Valencia and Murcia are known by the Spanish name of huertas (gardens), in Andalusia by the Arabic name of vegas, which has the same meaning. Many of the old irrigation See also:

• WORKS

See also:

• MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN

There is also a large export of grapes and raisins, especially from Malaga, Valencia, Almeria and Alicante. The Spanish vines have suffered, like those of France, from See also:

• MILDEW (0. Eng. meledeaw or mildeaw, explained as " meal-dew," cf. Ger. Me/zit/tau, with more probability, as " honey-dew," Goth. melith, honey, cf. Lat. mel, Gr. µEX)

The date-palm is very general in the south-eastern half of the kingdom, but is cultivated for its fruit only in the province of Alicante, in which is the celebrated date-See also:

• GROVE (O.E. graf, cf. O.E. gr(efa, brushwood, later" greave "; the word does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and the New English Dictionary finds no Indo-European root to which it can be referred; Skeat considers it connected with " grave," to
• GROVE, SIR GEORGE (182o-1900)
• GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT (1811-1896)

Among vegetables See also:

• GARLIC (O. Eng. gdrledc, i.e. " spear-leek "; Gr. oKbpolov; Lat. allium; Ital. aglio; Fr. ail; Ger. Knoblauch)

The most famous breeds of Spanish sheep are the merinos or migrating sheep, which once brought immense revenues to the state as well as to the large proprietors to whom they mostly belonged (see See also:

• MERINO

No European country produces so great a variety of minerals in large amount, and in the production of copper ore, lead ore and See also:

• MERCURY
• MERCURY (MERCU1uus)
• MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 2oo)

In 1905 the workmen employed on mines in Spain numbered 105,000, and the total value of the output was estimated at £7,734,805. By the law of the 6th of July 1859, a large number of important mines, including all the salt-works and rock-salt mines, were reserved as state property, but See also:

• FINANCIAL

See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

Owing to the abundance of water-power to be obtained in the mountainous regions, these new undertakings proved very successful. Spain is, on the whole, a country whose production falls far short of her own requirements. With a protected home market, cheap power and cheap labour available, there is See also:

• ROOM

The Spaniards of that day, excited by the See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

The principal imports include grain, dried See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

In 1905 19,722 ships of 16,395,267 tons entered, and 18,033 of 16,442,355 tons cleared. Banking and See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

In law, there is a double See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

The government of Spain having guaranteed the colonial debts of Cuba and of the Phiiippines, when those colonies were lost in 1898, Spain was further saddled with £46,210,000 of colonial consolidated debts, and with the expenses of the wars amounting, besides, to £63,257,000. Consequently, the Spanish government had once more to See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

" unless they have been excluded." Should all lines become See also:

• EXTINCT

This law re-established universal male See also:

• SUFFRAGE (Lat. suffragium)

In the larger towns the alcalde shares his reponsibilities with several permanent officials called lenientes alcaldes. The fundamental law of 1876 secures to ayuntamientos, and to the provincial councils, an See also:

• AUTONOMY (Gr. abr6s, self, and v6pos, law)

The administration of justice is public. The parties to a suit must be represented by counsel. The state is always represented in every court by abogados fiscales, public prosecutors, and counsel who are nominees of the See also:

• CROWN

The governments of the Restoration showed the Church much favour, allowed the See also:

• JESUITS

The primary schools for both sexes are kept up by the municipalities, at an annual cost of about £r,0oo,000, to which the state contributes a small subvention. The secondary schools, of which there must be at least one in every province, are styled institutes and are mostly self-supporting, the fees paid by the pupils usually cover the expenses of such establishments, which also receive subsidies from some of the provincial councils. Spain has nine universities: Madrid, the most numerously attended; Salamanca, the most ancient; Granada, Seville, Barcelona, Valencia, Santiago, Saragossa and Valladolid. There are also a See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

Liability to service begins with the first day of the See also:

• CALENDAR

Other permanent military forces are 1075 See also:

• OFFICERS

(1895, 1896, 1898 and 1902); C. See also:

• BARROIS, CHARLES (1851– )

J. See also:

• BUCK
• BUCK, CARL DARLING (1866– )
• BUCK, DUDLEY (1839-1909)

See also:

• GAY, JOHN (1685-1732)
• GAY, MARIE FRANCOISE SOPHIE (1776-1852)
• GAY, WALTER (1856– )

The Romans, whose acquaintance with the country began in the 3rd century B.C., mention three races: See also:

• IBERIANS (Iberi, "I(3r7Aes)

The expansion is attributed chiefly to the second half of the 3rd century B.C., and to the See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

So the war went on to its inevitable issue. Numantia, the centre of the fiercest resistance, fell in 133 B.C. before the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

It was the first city outside of Italy which obtained such a municipal charter, without the usual implantation of Roman citizens (either poor men needing land or discharged See also:

• VETERAN

Shut off from foreign enemies (though occasionally vexed by pirates from Africa), secluded from the wars of the empire, it developed its natural resources to an extent unequalled before or since. Its iron and copper and silver and lead were well known: it was also (according to the See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

But while we need not doubt that the decline occurred, we can hardly determine either its date or its intensity without careful examination of the Roman remains of Spain. Many of the best Roman ruins—such as the See also:

• AQUEDUCT (Lat. aqua, water, and ducere, to lead; Gr. apaymryeiov, apayeeywov, vlrovopos)

The first-corners cannot be said to have conquered the country in the sense that they established a rule of their own. They were not numerous enough for the See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

This undoubtedly was the case in the north, where the Asturians and Basques, the least Romanized part of the population, appear from the beginning of the age of barbarization as acting for themselves. In the mountain country of Cuenca, Albacete, and the Sierra Nevada the natives known as the Orospedans were entirely independent in the middle of the 6th century. But if there See also:

• LAY

But for an See also:

• INTERVAL

But on his death the advance of the See also:

• FRANKS
• FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897)

The kings tried to make the crown hereditary, and the nobles, Visigothic seniores, and Roman senatores seized every opportunity to keep it elective. Spain presented a forecast of the anarchy of See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

The spread of Mahommedanism was so rapid in the first years after the conquest that it is impossible to believe that the country had been thoroughly christianized. Theudis, who made his headquarters at Seville, endeavoured to complete his mastery of the See also:

• DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form diocess—current until the 19th century—from Lat. dioecesis, med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. Swucio•tc, " house-keeping," " administration," &miceas, " to keep house," " to govern ")

Leovigild drove the imperial officers from Seville and Cordova, though they still retained control of the coast. His son Hermenegild, to whom he entrusted the government of Baetica, was married to a Frankish princess. Intermarriages had not been uncommon between See also:

• FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791)

(62o-621), Swintella, associated with his son Reccimer (621–631), Sisinand (631–636), Chintila (636–64o), Tulga (64o–641) , Chindaswinth (641–652) , Recceswinth (649–672). The growing weakness of the See also:

• MEROVINGIANS

His reign ended in turmoil, and perhaps by murder. With Roderic, whose " tumultuous " election was the work of Witiza's enemies, the line of the Visigoth kings is considered to have ended. The Visigoth kingdom presents an appearance of coherence which was very far from corresponding to the reality. At the Organiza- head was the king, surrounded by his See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

But there was more show than reality in this See also:

• PARADE (Fr. parade, an adaptation from Ital. parada; cf. Span. parada, from Lat. parade, to prepare, equip, furnish)

It is at least certain that in the See also:

• BATTLE

The See also:

• RUSH
• RUSH, BENJAMIN (1745–1813)
• RUSH, RICHARD (1780–1859)

The family of Witiza did obtain See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

If this moderate policy had been or could have been steadily pursued, the invaders would in all probability have founded a lasting state. But it could not be pursued, since it required for its application a consistency, and a power to act on a definite political principle, of which the Mahommedan conquerors were absolutely destitute. Nor had Spain been conquered by a single race. The invaders were a See also:

• COALITION (Lat. coalitio, the verbal substantive of coalescere, to grow together)

From that See also:

• FATE

The names of their leaders Garci Jeminez and Ingo Arista are altogether legendary. But here were the roots of the kingdom of Navarre, of Sobrarbe and Aragon. In the earliest times their most pressing foe was not the Arab or Berber so much as the Carolingian. It was at their hands that See also:

• CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814)
• CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753–1838)

The total silence of the contemporary See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

Dissensions among them-which the Moslem were fighting out their own quarrels. Alphonso selves coincided with an energetic rally of the Moslem power. swept all through that region, already more than half depopu- lated, slaying the lingering remnants of the Berbers, and carrying back the surviving Christians to the north. Behind that See also:

• SHIELD (0. Eng. scild, cf. Du. and Ger. Schild, Dan. Skjold; the origin is doubtful, but may be referred to the root seen in " shell " or " scale "; another suggestion connects it with Icel. skjalla, to clash, rattle; it is not connected with the Indo-Ger
• SHIELD, WILLIAM (1748—1829)

In all the long period from Pelayo to Ramiro II. only one event occurred which had much tendency to bring the Christians of the north-west into close relations with their neighbours of the same faith north of the Pyrenees. This was the discovery, or, in strict ecclesiastical language, the " invention " of the body of St See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

To the east of it, the Navarrese, having rid themselves of the Carolingian counts and marchers, had made a kingdom in their mountains, and beyond them the little free territories of the central Pyrenees were advancing, in subordination to the Navarrese king at See also:

• PAMPLONA, or PAMPELUNA

The massacre which Hakam I. effected by a lavish use of See also:

• FRAUD (Lat. fraus, deceit)

(822–852), who spent his life listening to a favourite and highly accomplished Persian See also:

• TENOR (through Fr. and It. from Lat. tenor, holding on, course, sense of a law, tone)

He saw the Christian princes of the north become his vassals and submit to his See also:

• JUDGMENT

The council over which Alphonso V. of Leon and his wife Geloria (i.e. See also:

• ELVIRA, SYNOD OF

Navarre was left by Sancho to another son, Garcia, while the small Christian states of the central Pyrenees, Aragon and Sobrarbe with the Ribagorza went to his other sons, Ramiro See also:

• SANCHEZ

His death in 1065 brought about a pause for a time. He left his three kingdoms to his three sons Sancho, Alphonso and Garcia. Alphonso, to whom Leon had fallen as his share, remained master after the murder of Sancho at Zamora, which he was endeavouring to take from his sister, and the imprisonment of Garcia of Gallicia. The reign, of Alphonso VI., which lasted till 1109, is one of the fullest in the Alphonso See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

In his old age, one of his wives Sobh (the Day-break), a Basque, See also:

• BORE

In later times Christian ecclesiastical writers, finding it difficult to justify the unbroken prosperity of the wicked to an age which believed in the judgment of God and trial by combat, invented a final defeat for Mansur at Calatanaxor. He died in 1002 undefeated, but racked by anxiety for the permanence of the prosperity of his house. His son Mozaffar, kept the authority as hajib, always in the name of Hisham II., who was hidden away in a second See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

The fundamental difference between the Moslem, who know only the See also:

• DESPOT (Gr. Sc-va6rgs, lord or master; the origin of the first part of the Gr. word is unknown, the second part is cognate with rbvcs, husband, Lat. potens, powerful)

Their peoples began to look to Africa, where Yusuf ben Techufin was ruling the newly founded empire of the See also:

• ALMORAVIDES (properly Murabtis, the name being corrupted through the Spanish)

One generation of military efficiency and of See also:

• COMPARATIVE

The death of Urraca in 1126 allowed her son to reunite the dominions of his grandfather. In the meantime his quarrels with Urraca had not deterred Alphonso, who is surnamed the Battler in Aragonese history, from taking Saragossa in 1118, and from defeating the Almoravides at the decisive battle of Cutanda in 1120. In 1125 he carried out a great raid through Mahommedan Spain, camping in its midst for months, and returning with many thousands of the Christian rayahs, who, under the name of Mozarabes, had hitherto continued to live under Moslem rule. They now fled from the bigotry and See also:

• NEGRO (from Lat. eager, black)

His @nEmpire mpiree" death was followed by another and, happily, a last division of Castile and Leon. Sa ncho, his eldest son, took the first and Fernando the second. The See also:

• DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)

1 Raymond du See also:

• PUY