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JESUITS

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Originally appearing in Volume V15, Page 347 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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JESUITS , the name generally given to the members of the Society of Jesus, a religious See also:

order in the See also:Roman See also:Catholic See also:Church, founded in 1539. This Society may be defined, in its See also:original conception and well-avowed See also:object, as a See also:body of highly trained religious men of various degrees, See also:bound by the three See also:personal vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, together with, in some cases, a See also:special See also:vow to the See also:pope's service, with the object of labouring for the spiritual See also:good of themselves and their neighbours. They are declared to be mendicants and enjoy all the privileges of the other mendicant orders. They are governed and live by constitutions and rules, mostly See also:drawn up by their founder, St See also:Ignatius of See also:Loyola, and approved by the popes. Their proper See also:title is " Clerks Regulars of the Society of Jesus," the word Societas being taken as synonymous with the original See also:Spanish See also:term, Compania; perhaps the military term Cohors might more fully have expressed the original See also:idea of a See also:band of spiritual soldiers living under See also:martial See also:law and discipline. The See also:ordinary term " Jesuit " was given to the Society by its avowed opponents; it is first found in the writings of See also:Calvin and in the registers of the See also:Parlement of See also:Paris as See also:early as 1552. Constitution and See also:Character.—The formation of the Society was a masterpiece of See also:genius on the See also:part of a See also:man (see LOYOLA) who was See also:quick to realize the See also:necessity of the moment. Just before Ignatius was experiencing the See also:call to See also:conversion, See also:Luther had begun his revolt against the Roman Church by burning the papal See also:bull of See also:excommunication on the loth of See also:December 1520. But while Luther's most formidable opponent was thus being prepared in See also:Spain, the actual formation of the Society was not to take See also:place for eighteen years. Its conception seems to have See also:developed very slowly in the mind of Ignatius. It introduced a new idea into the Church. Hitherto all regulars made a point of the choral See also:office in See also:choir.

But as Ignatius conceived the Church to be in a See also:

state of See also:war, what was desirable in days of See also:peace ceased when the See also:life of the See also:cloister had to be exchanged for the discipline of the See also:camp; so in the See also:sketch of the new society which he laid before See also:Paul III., Ignatius laid down the principle that the See also:obligation of the See also:breviary should be fulfilled privately and separately and not in choir. The other orders, too, were bound by the idea of a constitutional See also:monarchy based on the democratic spirit. Not so with the Society. The founder placed the See also:general for life in an almost uncontrolled position of authority, giving him the See also:faculty of dispensing individuals from the decrees of the highest legislative body, the general congregations. Thus the principle of military obedience was exalted to a degree higher than that existing in the older orders, which preserved to their members certain constitutional rights. The soldier-mind of Ignatius can be seen throughout the constitutions. Even in the spiritual labours which the Society shares with the other orders, its own ways of dealing with persons and things result from the See also:system of training which succeeds in forming men to a type that is considered desirable. But it must not be thought that in practice the See also:rule of the Society and the high degree of obedience demanded result in See also:mere mechanism. By a system of check and See also:counter check devised in the constitutions the See also:power of See also:local superiors is modified, so that in practice the working is smooth. Ignatius knew that while a high ideal was necessary for every society, his followers were flesh and See also:blood, not See also:machines. He made it clear from the first that the Society was everything and the individual nothing, except so far as he might prove a useful See also:instrument for carrying out the Society's See also:objects. Ignatius said to his secretary Polanco that " in those who offered themselves he looked less to purely natural goodness than to firmness of character and ability for business, for he was of See also:opinion that those who were not See also:fit for public business were not adapted for filling offices in the Society." He further declared that even exceptional qualities and endowments in a See also:candidate were valuable in his eyes only on the See also:condition of their being brought into See also:play, or held in See also:abeyance, strictly at the command of a See also:superior.

Hence his teaching on obedience. His See also:

letter on this subject, addressed to the Jesuits of See also:Coimbra in 1553, is still one of the See also:standard formularies of the Society, ranking with those other products of his See also:pen, the Spiritual Exercises and the Constitutions. In this letter Ignatius clothes the general with the See also:powers of a See also:commander-in-See also:chief in See also:time of war, giving him the See also:absolute disposal of all members of the Society in every place and for every purpose. He pushes the claim even further, requiring, besides entire outward submission to command, also the See also:complete See also:identification of the inferior's will with that of the superior. He See also:lays down that the superior is to be obeyed simply as such and as See also:standing in the place of See also:God, without reference to his personal See also:wisdom, piety or discretion; that any obedience which falls See also:short of making the superior's will one's own, in inward See also:affection as well as in outward effect, is lax and imperfect; that going beyond the letter of command, even in things abstractly good and praise-worthy, is disobedience, and that the " See also:sacrifice of the See also:intellect " is the third and highest grade of obedience, well pleasing to God, when the inferior not only See also:wills what the superior wills, but thinks what he thinks, submitting his See also:judgment, so far as it is possible for the. will to See also:influence and See also:lead the judgment. This Letter on Obedience' was written for the guidance and formation of Ignatius's own followers; it was an entirely domestic affair. But when it became known beyond the Society the teaching met with See also:great opposition, especially from members of other orders whose institutes represented the normal days of peace rather than those of war. The letter was condemned by the Inquisitions of Spain and See also:Portugal; and it tasked all the skill and learning of See also:Bellarmine as its apologist, together with the whole influence of the Society, to avert what seemed to be a probable condemnation at See also:Rome. The teaching of the Letter must be understood in the living spirit of the Society. Ignatius himself lays down the rule that an inferior is bound to make all necessary representations to his superior so as to See also:guide him in imposing a See also:precept of obedience. When a superior knows the views of his inferior and still commands, it is because he is aware of other sides of the question which appear of greater importance than those that the inferior has brought forward. Ignatius distinctly excepts the See also:case where obedience in itself would be sinful: " In all things except See also:sin I ought to do the will of my superior and not my own." There may be cases where an inferior See also:judges that what is commanded is sinful.

What is to be done? Ignatius says: " When it seems to me that I am commanded by my superior to do a thing against which my See also:

conscience revolts as sinful and my superior judges otherwise, it is my See also:duty to yield my doubts to him unless I am otherwise constrained by evident reasons. ... If submissions do not appease my conscience I must impart my doubts to two or three persons of discretion and abide by their decision." From this it is clear that only in doubtful cases concerning sin should an inferior try to submit his judgment to that of his superior, who ex officio is held to be not only one who would not order what is clearly sinful, but also a competent See also:judge who knows and understands, better than the inferior, the nature and aspect of the command. As the Jesuit obedience is based on the law of God, it is clearly impossible that he should be bound to obey in what is directly opposed to the divine service. A Jesuit lives in obedience all his life, though the yoke is not galling nor always See also:felt. He can accept no dignity or office which will make him See also:independent of the Society; and even if ordered by the pope to accept the cardinalate or the episcopate, he is still bound, if not to obey, yet to listen to the See also:advice of those whom the general deputes to counsel him in important matters. The Jesuits had to find their See also:principal See also:work in the See also:world and in See also:direct and immediate contact with mankind. To seek spiritual perfection in a retired life of contemplation and See also:prayer did not seem to Ignatius to be the best way of reforming the evils which had brought about the revolt from Rome. He withdrew his followers from this sort of retirement, except as a mere temporary preparation for later activity; he made habitual intercourse with the world a See also:prime duty; and to this end he rigidly suppressed all such See also:external peculiarities of See also:dress or rule as tended to put obstacles in the way of his followers acting freely as emissaries, agents or missionaries in the most various places and circumstances. Another See also:change he introduced even more completely than did the founders of the Friars. The Jesuit has no See also:home: the whole world is his See also:parish.

Mobility and cosmopolitanism are of the very essence of the Society. As Ignatius said, the See also:

ancient monastic communities were the See also:infantry of the Church, whose duty was to stand firmly in one place on the battlefield; the Jesuits were to be her See also:light See also:horse, capable of going anywhere at a moment's See also:notice, but especially See also:apt and de-signed for scouting and skirmishing. To carry out this view, it was one of his plans to send foreigners as superiors or See also:officers to the Jesuit houses in each See also:country, requiring of these envoys, however, invariably to use the See also:language of their new place of See also:residence andto study it both in speaking and See also:writing till entire mastery of it had been acquired—thus by degrees making all the parts of his system mutually interchangeable, and so largely increasing the number of persons eligible to fill any given See also:post without reference to locality. But subsequent experience has, in practice, modified this interchange, as far as local See also:government goes, though the central government of the Society is always See also:cosmopolitan. Next we must consider the machinery by which the Society is constituted and governed so as to make its spirit a living See also:energy and not a mere abstract theory. The Society is distributed into six grades: novices, scholastics, temporal coadjutors (See also:lay See also:brothers), spiritual coadjutors, professed of the three vows, and professed of the four vows. No one can become a postulant for See also:admission to the Society until fourteen years old, unless by special See also:dispensation. The novice is classified according as his destination is the priesthood or lay brotherhood, while a third class of " indifferents " receives such as are reserved for further inquiry before a decision of this See also:kind is made. The novice has first to undergo a strict See also:retreat, practically in solitary confinement, during which he receives from a director the Spiritual Exercises and makes a general See also:confession of his whole life; after which the first novitiate of two years' duration begins. In this See also:period of trial the real character of the man is discerned, his weak points are noted and his will is tested. Prayer and the practices of See also:asceticism, as means to an end, are the chief occupations of the novice. He may leave or be dismissed at any time during the two years; but at the end of the period if he is approved and destined for the priesthood, he is advanced to the grade of scholastic and takes the following See also:simple vows in the presence of certain witnesses, but not to any See also:person: " Almighty See also:Everlasting God, albeit everyway most unworthy in Thy See also:holy sight, yet relying on Thine See also:infinite kindness and See also:mercy and impelled by the See also:desire of serving Thee, before the Most Holy Virgin See also:Mary and all Thy heavenly See also:host, I, N., vow to Thy divine See also:Majesty Poverty, Chastity and Perpetual Obedience to the Society of Jesus, and promise that I will enter the same Society to live in it perpetually, understanding all things according to the Constitutions of the Society.

I humbly pray from Thine immense goodness and clemency, through the Blood of Jesus See also:

Christ, that See also:Thou wilt deign to accept this sacrifice in the odour of sweetness; and as Thou hast granted me to desire and to offer this, so wilt Thou bestow abundant See also:grace to fulfil it." The scholastic then follows the ordinary course of an under-See also:graduate at a university. After passing five years in arts he has, while still keeping up his own studies, to devote five or six years more to teaching the junior classes in various Jesuit See also:schools or colleges. About this period he takes his simple vows in the following terms: " I, N., promise to Almighty God, before His Virgin See also:Mother and the whole heavenly host, and to thee, See also:Reverend See also:Father General of the Society of Jesus, holding the place of God, and to thy successors (or to thee, Reverend Father M. in place of the General of the Society of Jesus and his successors holding the place of God), Perpetual Poverty, Chastity and Obedience ; and according to it a See also:peculiar care in the See also:education of boys, according to the manner expressed in the Apostolic Letter and Constitutions of the said Society." The lay brothers leave out the clause concerning education. The scholastic does not begin the study of See also:theology until he is twenty-eight or See also:thirty, and then passes through a four or six years' course. Only when he is thirty-four or thirty-six4can he be ordained a See also:priest and enter on the grade of a spiritual coadjutor. . A lay See also:brother, before he can become a temporal coadjutor for the See also:discharge of domestic duties, must pass ten years before he is admitted to vows. Sometimes after ordination the priest, in the midst of his work, is again called away to a third See also:year's novitiate, called the tertianship, as a preparation for his See also:solemn profession of the three vows. His former vows were simple and the Society was at See also:liberty to dismiss him for any canonical See also:reason. The See also:formula of the famous Jesuit vow is as follows: " I, N., promise to Almighty God, before His Virgin Mother and the whole heavenly host, and to all standing by :and to thee, Reverend Father General of the Society of Jesus, holding the place of God, and to thy successors (or to thee, Reverend Father M. in place of the General of the Society of Jesus and his successors holding the place of God), Perpetual Poverty, Chastity and Obedience; and according to it apeculiar care in the education of boys according to the See also:form of life contained in the Apostolic Letters of the Society of Jesus and in its Constitutions." Immediately after the vows the Jesuit adds the following simple vows: (I) that he will never See also:act nor consent that the provisions in the constitutions concerning poverty should be changed; (2) that he will not directly nor indirectly procure See also:election or promotion for himself to any prelacy or dignity in the Society; (3) that he will not accept or consent to his election to any dignity or prelacy outside the Society unless forced thereunto by obedience; (4) that if he knows of others doing these things he will denounce them to the superiors; (5) that if elected to a bishopric he will never refuse to hear such advice as the general may deign to send him and will follow it if he judges it is better than his own opinion. The professed is now eligible to certain offices in the Society, and he may remain as a professed father of the three vows for the See also:rest of his life. The highest class, who constitute the real core of the Society, whence all its chief officers are taken, are the professed of the four vows. This glade can seldom be reached until the candidate is in his See also:forty-fifth year, which involves a See also:probation of thirty-one years in the case of those who have entered on the novitiate at the earliest legal See also:age.

The number of these select members is small in comparison with the whole Society; the exact proportion varies from time to time, the See also:

present tendency being to increase the number. The vows of this grade are the same as the last formula, with the addition of the following important clause: " Moreover I promise the special obedience to the See also:Sovereign Pontiff concerning See also:missions, as is contained in the same Apostolic Letter and Constitutions." These various members of the Society are distributed in its novitiate houses, its colleges, its professed houses and its See also:mission residences. The question has been hotly debated whether, in addition to these six grades, there be not a seventh answering in some degree to the See also:tertiaries of the Franciscan and Dominican orders, but secretly affiliated to the Society and acting as its emissaries in various lay positions. This class was styled in See also:France " Jesuits of the short robe," and there is some See also:evidence in support of its actual existence under See also:Louis XV. The Jesuits themselves deny the existence of any such body, and are able to adduce the negative disproof that no See also:provision for it is to be found in their constitutions. On the other See also:hand there are clauses therein which make the creation of such a class perfectly feasible if thought expedient. An admitted instance is the case of Francisco See also:Borgia, who in 1548, while still See also:duke of See also:Gandia, was received into the Society. What has given See also:colour to the idea is that certain persons have made vows of obedience to individual Jesuits; as See also:Thomas Worthington, See also:rector of the See also:Douai See also:seminary, to Father See also:Robert See also:Parsons; See also:Ann See also:Vaux to Fr. See also:Henry See also:Garnet, who told her that he was not indeed allowed to receive her vows, but that she might make them if she wished and then receive his direction. The archaeologist See also:George See also:Oliver of See also:Exeter was, according to See also:Foley's Records of the See also:English See also:Province, the last of the See also:secular priests of See also:England who vowed obedience to the Society before its suppression. The general lives permanently at Rome and holds in his hands the right to appoint, not only to the office of provincial over each of the See also:head districts into which the Society is mapped, but to the offices of each See also:house in particular. There is no standard of electoral right in the Society except in the election of the general himself.

By a See also:

minute and frequent system of See also:official and private reports he is informed of the doings and progress of every member of the Society and of everything that concerns it throughout the world. Every Jesuit has not only the right but the duty in certain cases of communicating, directly and privately, with his general. While the general thus controls everything, he himself is not exempt from supervision on the part of the Society. A consultative See also:council is imposed upon him by the general See also:congregation, consisting of the assistants of the various nations, a socius, or adviser, to warn him of mistakes, and a See also:confessor. These he cannot remove nor select; and he is bound, in certain circumstances, to listen to their advice, althoughhe is not obliged to follow it. Once elected the general may not refuse the office, nor abdicate, nor accept any dignity or office outside of the Society; on the other hand, for certain definite reasons, he may be suspended or even deposed by the authority of the Society, which can thus preserve itself from destruction. No such instance has occurred, although steps were once taken in this direction in the case of a general who had set himself against the current feeling. It is said that the general of the Jesuits is independent of the pope; and his popular name, " the See also:black pope," has gone to confirm this idea. But it is based on an entirely wrong conception of the two offices. The suppression of the Society by See also:Clement XIV. in 1773 was an object-See also:lesson in the supremacy of the pope. The Society became very numerous and, from time to time, received extraordinary privileges from popes, who were warranted by the necessities of the times in granting them. A great number of influential See also:friends, also, gathered See also:round the fathers who, naturally, sought in every way to retain what had been granted.

Popes who thought it well to bring about certain changes, or to withdraw privileges that were found to have passed their intentions or to interfere unduly with the rights of other bodies, often met with loyal resistances against their proposed See also:

measures. Resistance up to a certain point is lawful and is not disobedience, for every society has the right of self-preservation. In cases where the popes insisted, in spite of the representations of the Jesuits, their commands were obeyed. Many of the popes were distinctly unfavourable to the Society, while others were as friendly, and often what one pope did against them the next pope withdrew. Whatever was done in times when strong divergence of opinion existed, and whatever may have been the. actions of individuals who, even in so highly organized a body as the Society of Jesus, cannot always be successfully controlled by their superiors, yet the ultimate result on the part of the Society has always been obedience to the pope, who authorized, protected and privileged them, and on whom they ultimately depend for their very existence. Thus constituted, with a skilful See also:union of strictness and freedom, of complex organization with a minimum of See also:friction in working, the Society was admirably devised for its purpose of introducing a new power into the Church and the world. Its immediate services to the Church were great. The Society did much, single-handed, to See also:roll back the See also:tide of See also:Protestant advance when See also:half of See also:Europe, which had not already shaken off its See also:allegiance to the papacy, was threatening to do so. The honours of the reaction belong to the Jesuits, and the reactionary spirit has become their tradition. They had the wisdom to see and to admit, in their See also:correspondence with their superiors, that the real cause of the See also:Reformation was the See also:ignorance, neglect and vicious lives of so many priests. They recognized, as most See also:earnest men did, that the difficulty was in the higher places, and that these could best be touched by indirect methods. At a time when See also:primary or even secondary education had in most places become a mere effete and pedantic adherence to obsolete methods, they were bold enough to innovate, both in system and material.

Putting fresh spirit and devotion into the work, they not merely taught and catechized in a new, fresh and attractive manner, besides establishing See also:

free schools of good quality, but provided new school books for their pupils which were an enormous advance on those they found in use; so that for nearly three centuries the Jesuits were accounted the best schoolmasters in Europe, as they were, till their forcible suppression in See also:tool, confessedly the best in France. The Jesuit teachers conciliated the See also:goodwill of their pupils by mingled firmness and gentleness. Although the method of the Ratio Studiorum has ceased to be acceptable, yet it played in its time as serious a part in the intellectual development of Europe as did the method of See also:Frederick the Great in See also:modern warfare. See also:Bacon succinctly gives his opinion of the Jesuit teaching in these words: " As for the pedagogical part, the shortest rule would be, Consult the schools of the Jesuits; for nothing better has been put in practice " (De Augmentis, vi. 4). In instruction they were excellent; but in education, or formation of character, deficient. Again, when most of the See also:continental See also:clergy had sunk, more or less, into the moral and intellectual See also:slough which is pictured for us in the writings of See also:Erasmus and the Epistolae obscurorum virorunz (see See also:HUTTEN, See also:ULRICH VON), the Jesuits won back respect for the clerical calling by their personal culture and the unimpeachable purity of their lives. These qualities they have carefully maintained; and probably no large body of men in the world has been so free from the reproach of discreditable members or has kept up, on the whole, an equally high See also:average of intelligence and conduct. As preachers, too, they delivered the See also:pulpit from the bondage of an effete See also:scholasticism and reached at once a clearness and simplicity of treatment such as the English pulpit scarcely begins to exhibit till after the days of See also:Tillotson; while in literature and theology they See also:count a far larger number of respectable writers than any other religious society can boast. It is in the mission See also:field, however, that their achievements have been most remarkable. Whether toiling among the teeming millions in Hindustan and See also:China, labouring amongst the See also:Hurons and See also:Iroquois of See also:North See also:America, governing and civilizing the natives of See also:Brazil and See also:Paraguay in the missions and " reductions," or ministering, at the hourly See also:risk of his life to his See also:fellow-Catholics in England under See also:Elizabeth and the Stuarts, the Jesuit appears alike devoted, indefatigable, cheerful and worthy of hearty admiration and respect. Nevertheless, two startling and indisputable facts meet the student who pursues the See also:history of the Society.

The first is the universal suspicion and hostility it has incurred—not merely from the Protestants whose avowed foe it has been, not yet from the enemies of all clericalism and See also:

dogma, but from every Catholic state and nation in the world. Its chief enemies have been those of the See also:household of the Roman Catholic faith. The second fact is the ultimate failure which seems to See also:dog all its most promising schemes and efforts. These two results are to be observed alike in the provinces of morals and politics. The first cause of the opposition indeed redounds to the Jesuits' See also:credit, for it was largely due to their success. Their pulpits rang with a studied eloquence; their churches, sumptuous and attractive, were crowded; and in the See also:confessional their advice was eagerly sought in all kinds of difficulties, for they were the fashionable professors of the See also:art of direction. Full of See also:enthusiasm and zeal, devoted wholly to their Society, they were able to bring in See also:numbers of See also:rich and influential persons to their ranks; for, with a clear understanding of the power of See also:wealth, they became, of set purpose, the apostles of the rich and influential. The Jesuits felt that they were the new men, the men of the time; so with a perfect confidence in themselves they went out to set the Church to rights. It was no wonder that success, so well worked for and so well de-served, failed to win the approval or sympathy of those who found themselves supplanted. Old-fashioned men, to whom the apostles' advice to " do all to the See also:glory of God " seemed sufficient, mistrusted those who professed to go beyond all others and adopted as their See also:motto the famous Ad majorem Dei gloriam, " To the greater glory of God." But, besides this, the esprit de See also:corps which is necessary for every body of men was, it was held, carried to an excess and made the Jesuits intolerant of any one or anything if not of " ours." The novelties too which they introduced into the conception of the religious life, naturally, were displeasing to the older orders, who felt like old aristocratic families towards a newly rich or See also:purse-proud up-start. The Society, or rather its members, were too aggressive and self-assertive to be welcomed; and a certain characteristic, which soon began to See also:manifest itself in an impatience of episcopal See also:control, showed that the quality of " Jesuitry," usually associated with the Society, was singularly lacking in their dealings with opponents. Their See also:political attitude also alienated many.

Many of the Jesuits could not See also:

separate See also:religion from politics. To say this is only to assert that they were not clearer-minded than most men of their age. But unfortunately they invariably took the wrong See also:side and allowed themselves to be made the tools of men who saw farther and more clearly than they did. They had their See also:share, direct or indirect, in the embroiling of states, in concocting conspiracies and in kindling See also:wars. They were also responsible by their theoretical teachings in theological schools, where cases were considered and treated in the abstract, for not a few assassinations of the enemies of the cause. Weak minds heard tyrannicide discussed and defended in the abstract; andit was no wonder that, when opportunity served, the See also:train that had been heedlessly laid by speculative professors was fired by rash hands. What professors like See also:Suarez taught in the See also:calm See also:atmosphere of the lecture See also:hall, what writers like See also:Mariana upheld and praised, See also:practical men took as See also:justification for deeds of blood. There is no evidence that any Jesuit took a direct part in political assassinations; however, indirectly, they may have been morally responsible. They were playing with edged tools and often got wounded through their own carelessness. Other grievances were raised by their perpetual meddling in politics, e.g. their large share in fanning the flames of political hatred against the See also:Huguenots under the last two See also:Valois See also:kings; their perpetual plotting against England in the reign of Elizabeth; their share in the Thirty Years' War and in the religious miseries of Bohemia; their decisive influence in causing the revocation of the See also:edict of See also:Nantes and the See also:expulsion of the Protestants from France; the ruin of the See also:Stuart cause under See also:James II., and the See also:establishment of the Protestant See also:succession. In a number of cases where the evidence against them is defective, it is at least an unfortunate coincidence that there is always direct See also:proof of some Jesuit having been in communication with the actual agents engaged. They were the stormy petrels of politics.

Yet the Jesuits, as a body, should not be made responsible for the doings of men who, in their political intrigues, were going directly against the distinct law of the Society, which in strict terms, and under heavy penalties, forbade them to have anything to do with such matters. The politicians were comparatively few in number, though unfortunately they held high See also:

rank; and their disobedience to the rule besmirched the name of the society and destroyed the good work of the other Jesuits who were faithfully carrying out their own proper duties. A far graver cause for uneasiness was given by the Jesuits' activity in the region of See also:doctrine and morals. Here the charges against them are precise, early, numerous and weighty. Their founder himself was arrested, more than once, by the See also:Inquisition and required to give See also:account of his belief and conduct. But St Ignatius, with all his powerful gifts of intellect, was entirely practical and ethical in his range, and had no turn whatever for See also:speculation, nor desire to discuss, much less to question, any of the received dogmas of the Church. He gives it as a rule of orthodoxy to be ready to say that black is See also:white if the Church says so. He was therefore acquitted on every occasion, and applied each time for a formally attested certificate of his orthodoxy, knowing well that, in See also:default of such documents, the fact of his See also:arrest as a suspected heretic would be more distinctly recollected by opponents than that of his See also:honourable dismissal from custody. His followers, however, have not been so fortunate. On doctrinal questions indeed, though their teaching on grace, especially in the form given to it by See also:Molina (q.v.), ran contrary to the accepted teaching on the subject by the See also:Augustinians, See also:Dominicans and other representative schools; yet by their pertinacity they gained for their views a recognized and established position. A special congregation of cardinals and theologians known as de auxiliis was summoned by the pope to See also:settle the dispute, for the odium theologicum had risen to a desperate height between the representatives of the old and the new theology; but after many years they failed to arrive at any satisfactory conclusion, and the pope, instead of settling the dispute, was only able to impose mutual silence on all opponents. Among those who held out stiffly against the Jesuits on the subject of grace were the Jansenists, who held that they were following the special teaching of St See also:Augustine, known See also:par excellence as the See also:doctor of grace.

The Jesuits and the Jansenists soon became deadly enemies; and in the ensuing conflict both parties accused each other of flinging scruples to the See also:

wind. (See See also:JANSENISM.) But the accusations against the Jesuit system of moral theology and their See also:action as guides of conduct have had a more serious effect on their reputation. It is undeniable that some of their moral writers were lax in their teaching; and conscience was strained to the snapping point. The Society was trying to make itself all things to all men. Propositions extracted from Jesuit moral theologians have again and again been condemned by the pope and declared untenable. Many of these can be found in Viva's Condemned Propositions. As early as 1554 the Jesuits were censured by the See also:Sorbonne, chiefly at the instance of Eustache de Bellay, See also:bishop of Paris, as being dangerous in matters of faith. Melchor See also:Cano, a Dominican, one of the ablest divines of the 16th See also:century, never ceased to lift up his testimony against them, from their first beginnings till his own See also:death in 156o; and, unmollified by the bribe of the bishopric of the Canaries, which their See also:interest procured for him, he succeeded in banishing them from the university of See also:Salamanca. Carlo See also:Borromeo, to whose original advocacy they owed much, especially in the council of See also:Trent, found himself attacked in his own See also:cathedral pulpit and interfered with in his See also:jurisdiction. He withdrew his See also:protection and expelled them from his colleges and churches; and he was followed in 1604 in this policy by his See also:cousin and successor See also:Cardinal Federigo Borromeo. St See also:Theresa learnt, in after years, to mistrust their methods, although she was grateful to them for much assistance in the first years of her work. The credit of the Society was seriously damaged by the publication, at See also:Cracow, in 1612, of the Monica Secrete.

This See also:

book, which is undoubtedly a See also:forgery, professes to contain the authoritative See also:secret instructions drawn up by the general Acquaviva and given by the superiors of the Society to its various officers and members. A bold See also:caricature of Jesuit methods, the book has been ascribed to See also:John Zaorowsky or to Cambilone and Schloss, all ex-Jesuits, and it is stated to have been discovered in See also:manuscript by See also:Christian of See also:Brunswick in the Jesuit See also:college at See also:Prague. It consists of suggestions and methods for extending the influence of the Jesuits in various ways, for securing a footing in fresh places, for acquiring wealth, for creeping into households and leading See also:silly rich widows See also:captive and so forth, all marked with ambition, See also:craft and unscrupulousness. It had a wide success and popularity, passing through several See also:editions, and even to this See also:day it is used by controversialists as unscrupulous as the original writers. It may, perhaps, represent the actions of some individuals who allowed their zeal to outrun their discretion, but surely no society which exists for good and is marked by so many worthy men could systematically have conducted its operations in such a manner. Later on a formidable See also:assault was made on Jesuit moral theology in the famous Provincial Letters of Blaise See also:Pascal (q.v.), eighteen in number, issued under the pen-name of Louis de Montalte, from See also:January 1656 to See also:March 16J7. Their wit, See also:irony, eloquence and finished See also:style have kept them alive as one of the great See also:French See also:classics—a destiny more fortunate than that of the kindred See also:works by See also:Antoine See also:Arnauld, Theologie morale See also:des Jesuites, consisting of extracts from writings of members of the Society, and Morale pratique des Jesuites, made up of narratives professing to set forth the manner in which they carried out their own See also:maxims. But, like most controversial writers, the authors were not scrupulous in their quotations, and by giving passages divorced from their contexts often entirely misrepresented their opponents. The immediate reply on the part of the Jesuits, The Discourses of Cleander and See also:Eudoxus by Pere See also:Daniel, could not compete with Pascal's work in brilliancy, wit or style; moreover, it was unfortunate enough to be put upon the See also:Index of prohibited books in 1701. The reply on behalf of the Society to Pascal's charges of lax morality, apart from mere general'denials, is broadly as follows: (1) St Ignatius himself, the founder of the Society, had a special aversion from untruthfulness in all its forms, from quibbling, equivocation or even studied obscurity of language, and it would be contrary to the spirit of conformity with his example and institutions for his followers to think and act otherwise. Hence, any who practised equivocation were, so far, unfaithful to the Society. (2) Several of the cases cited by Pascal are mere abstract hypotheses, many of them now obsolete, argued simply as intellectual exercises, but having no practical bearing whatever.

(3) Even such as do belong to the See also:

sphere of actual life are of the nature of-counsel to spiritual physicians, how to See also:deal with exceptional maladies; and were never intended to See also:fix the standard of moral obligation for the general public. (4) The theory that they were intended for this latter purpose and do represent the normal teaching of the Society becomes more untenable in exact proportion as this immorality is insisted on, because it is a See also:matter of notoriety that the Jesuitsthemselves have been singularly free from personal, as distinguished from corporate, evil repute; and no-one pretends that the large number of lay-folk whom they have educated or influenced exhibit greater moral inferiority than others. The third of these replies is the most cogent as regards Pascal, but the real weakness of his attack lies in that See also:nervous dread of See also:appeal to first principles and their logical result which has been the besetting snare of See also:Gallicanism. Pascal, at his best, has mistaken the part for the whole; he charges to the Society what, at the most, are the doings of individuals; and from these he asserts the degeneration of the body from its original standard; whereas the stronger the life and the more extensive the natural . development, side by side will exist marks of degeneration; and a society like the Jesuits has no difficulty in asserting its life independently of such excrescences or, in time, in freeing itself from them. A See also:charge persistently made against the Society is that it teaches that the end justifies the means. And the words of Busembaum, whose Medulla theologiae has gone through more than fifty editions, are quoted in proof. True it is that Busembaum uses these words: Cui licitus est finis etiam licent See also:media. But on turning to his work (ed. Paris 1729, p. 584, or See also:Lib. vi. See also:Tract vi. cap. ii., De sacramentis, dubium ii.) it will be found that the author is making no universal application of an old legal See also:maxim; but is treating of a particular subject (concerning certain lawful liberties in the marital relation) beyond which his words cannot be forced. The sense in which other Jesuit theologians—e.g.

Paul Laymann (1595-1635), in his Theologia moralis (See also:

Munich, 1625), and See also:Ludwig Wagemann (1713-1792), in his Synopsis theologiae moralis (See also:Innsbruck, 1762)—quote the See also:axiom is an equally harmless piece of See also:common sense. For instance, if it is lawful to go on a See also:journey by railway it is lawful to take a See also:ticket. No one who put forth that proposition would be thought to mean that it is lawful to defraud the See also:company by stealing a ticket; for the proviso is always to be understood, that the means employed should, in themselves, not be See also:bad but good or at least indifferent. So when Wagemann says tersely Finis determinat probitatem actus he is clearly referring to acts which in themselves are indifferent, i.e. indeterminate. For instance: See also:shooting is an indifferent act, neither good nor bad in itself. The morality of any specified shooting depends upon what is shot, and the circumstances attending that act: shooting a man in self-See also:defence is, as a moral act, on an entirely different See also:plane to shooting a man in See also:murder. It has never been proved, and never can be proved, although the See also:attempt has frequently been made, that the Jesuits ever taught the nefarious proposition ascribed to them, which would be entirely subversive of all morality. Again, the doctrine of See also:probabilism is utterly misunderstood. It is based on an accurate conception of law. Law to bind must be clear and definite ; if it be not so, its obligation ceases and liberty of action remains. No probable opinion can stand against a clear and definite law; but when a law is doubtful in its application, in certain circumstances, so is the obligation of obedience: and as a doubtful law is, for practical purposes, no law at all, so it superinduces no obligation. Hence a probable opinion is one, founded on reason and held on serious grounds, that the law does not apply to certain specified cases; and that the law-giver therefore did not intend to bind.

It is the principle of See also:

equity applied to law. In moral matters a probable opinion, that is one held on no trivial grounds but by unprejudiced and solid thinkers, has no place where the See also:voice of conscience is clear, distinct and formed. Two causes have been at work to produce the universal failure of the great Society in all its plans and efforts. First stands its lack of really great intellects. It has had its See also:golden age. No society can keep up to its highest level. Nothing can be wider of the truth than the popular conception of the ordinary Jesuit as a being of almost superhuman abilities and universal knowledge. The Society, numbering as it does so many thou-sands, and with abundant means of devoting men to special branches of study, has, without doubt, produced men of great intelligence and solid learning. The average member, too, on account of his See also:long and systematic training, is always equal and often superior to the average member of any other equally large body, besides being disciplined by a far more perfect See also:drill. But it takes great men to carry out great plans; and of really great men, as the outside world knows and judges, the Society has been markedly barren from almost the first. Apart from its founder and his early See also:companion, St See also:Francis See also:Xavier, there is none who stands in the very first rank.' See also:Laynez and Acquaviva were able administrators and politicians; the See also:Bollandists (q.v.) were industrious workers and have developed a See also:critical spirit from which much good can be expected; Francisco Suarez, Leonhard Lessius and Cardinal Franzelin were some of the leading Jesuit theologians; See also:Cornelius a Lapide (1567–1637) represents their old school of scriptural studies, while their new See also:German writers are the most advanced of all orthodox higher critics; the French Louis See also:Bourdaloue (q.v.), the See also:Italian See also:Paolo Segneri (1624-1694), and the Portuguese See also:Antonio Vieyra (1608–1697) represent their best pulpit orators; while of the many mathematicians and astronomers produced by the Society Angelo See also:Secchi, Ruggiero Giuseppe See also:Boscovich and G.B. See also:Beccaria are conspicuous, and in modern times See also:Stephen See also:Joseph See also:Perry (1833=1889), director of the Stonyhurst College See also:observatory, took a high rank among men of See also:science.

Their boldest and most original thinker, See also:

Denis See also:Petau, so many years neglected, is now, by inspiring Cardinal See also:Newman's See also:Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine, producing a permanent influence over the current of human thought. The Jesuits have produced no See also:Aquinas, no See also:Anselm, no Bacon, no See also:Richelieu. Men whom they trained, and who See also:broke loose from their teaching, Pascal, See also:Descartes, See also:Voltaire, have power-fully affected the philosophical and religious beliefs of great masses of mankind; but respectable mediocrity is the See also:brand on the long See also:list of Jesuit names in the catalogues of Alegambe and De Backer. This is doubtless due in great measure to the destructive See also:process of scooping out the will of the Jesuit novice, to replace it with that of his superior (as a watchmaker might fit a new See also:movement into a case), and thereby tending, in most cases, to annihilate those subtle qualities of individuality and originality which are essential to genius. Men. of the higher See also:stamp will either refuse to submit to the process and leave the Society, or run the danger of coming forth from the See also:mill with their finest qualities pulverized and useless. In accordance with the spirit of its founder, who wished to secure uniformity in the judgment of his followers even in points See also:left open by the Church (" Let us all think the same way, let us all speak in the same manner if possible "), the Society has shown itself to be impatient of those who think or write in a way different from what is current in its ranks. Nor is this all. The Ratio Studiorum, devised by Acquaviva and still obligatory in the colleges of the Society, lays down rules which are incompatible with all breadth and progress in the higher forms of education. True to the See also:anti-speculative and traditional side of the founder's mind, it prescribes that, even where religious topics are not in question, the teacher is not to permit any novel opinions or discussions to be mooted; nor to cite or allow others to cite the opinions of an author not of known repute; nor to See also:teach or suffer to be taught anything contrary to the prevalent opinions of acknowledged doctors current in the schools. Obsolete and false opinions are not to be mentioned at all, even for refutation, nor are objections to received teaching to be dwelt on at any length. The result is that the Jesuit emerges from his schools without any real knowledge of any other method of thought than that which his professors have instilled into him. The See also:professor of Biblical Literature is always to support and defend the See also:Vulgate and can never prefer the marginal readings from the See also:Hebrew and See also:Greek.

The See also:

Septuagint, as far as it is incorrupt, is to be held not less See also:authentic than the Vulgate. In See also:philosophy See also:Aristotle is always to be followed, and St Thomas Aquinas generally, care being taken to speak respectfully of him even when abandoning his opinions, though now it is customary for the Jesuit teachers to explain him in their own sense. De See also:vera mente D. Thomas is no unfamiliar expression in their books. It is not wonderful, under such a method of training, fixed as it has been in minute detail for more than three See also:hundred years, that highly cultivated commonplaces should be the inevitable average result; and that in proportion as Jesuit power has become dominant in Christendom, especially in ecclesiastical circles, the same See also:doom of intellectual sterility and consequent loss of influence with the higher and thoughtful classes, has separated the part from the whole. The initial See also:mistake in the formation of character is that the Jesuits have aimed at educating lay boys in the same manner as they consider advisable for their own novices, for whom obedience and direction is the one thing necessary; whereas for lay See also:people the right use of liberty and initiative are to be desired. The second cause which has blighted the efforts of the Society is the lesson, too faithfully learnt and practised, of making its corporate interests the first object at all times and in all places. Men were quick to see that Jesuits did not aim at co-operation with the other members of the Church but directly or indirectly at mastery. The most brilliant exception to this rule is found in some of the missions of the Society and notably in that of St Francis Xavier (q.v.). But he quitted Europe in 1541 before the new society, especially under Laynez, had hardened into its final See also:mould; and he never returned. His work, so far as can be gathered from contemporary accounts, was not done on true Jesuit lines as they afterwards developed, though the Society has reaped all the credit; and it is even possible that, had he succeeded the founder as general, the See also:institute might not have received that political and self-seeking turn which Laynez, as second general, gave at the critical moment. It would almost seem that careful selection was made of the men of the greatest piety and enthusiasm, whose unworldliness made them less apt for See also:diplomatic intrigues, to break new ground in the various missions where their success would throw lustre on the Society and their scruples need never come into play.

But such men are not to be found easily; and, as they died off, the tendency was to fill their places with more ordinary characters, whose aim was to increase the power and resources of the. body. Hence the condescension to See also:

heathen See also:rites in Hindustan and China, and the attempted subjugation of the English Catholic clergy. The first successes of the See also:Indian mission were entirely among the See also:lower classes; but when in See also:Madura, in 1606, Robert de See also:Nobili, a See also:nephew of Bellarmine, to win the Brahmins, adopted their dress and mode of life—a step sanctioned by See also:Gregory XV. in 1623 and by Clement XI. in 1707-the fathers who followed his example pushed the new See also:caste-feeling so far as absolutely to refuse the ministrations and sacraments to the pariahs, lest the Brahmin converts should take offence—an attempt which was reported to Rome and was vainly censured by the breves of See also:Innocent X. in 1645, Clement IX. in 1669, Clement XII. in 1734 and 1739, and See also:Benedict XIV. in 1745. The See also:Chinese rites, assailed with equal unsuccess by one pope after another, were not finally put down until 1744 by a bull of Benedict XIV. For See also:Japan, where their side of the See also:story is that best known, we have a remarkable letter, printed by See also:Lucas See also:Wadding in the Annales minorum, addressed to Paul V. by See also:Soleto, a Franciscan missionary, who was martyred in 1624, in which he complains to the pope that the Jesuits systematically postponed the spiritual welfare of the native Christians to their own convenience and See also:advantage; while as regards the test of martyrdom, no such result had followed on their teaching, but only on that of the other orders who had undertaken missionary work in Japan. Yet soon many Jesuit martyrs in Japan were to See also:shed a new glory on the Society (see JAPAN: See also:Foreign Intercourse). Again, even in Paraguay, the most promising of all Jesuit undertakings, the evidence shows that the fathers, though civilizing the Guarani See also:population just sufficiently to make them useful and docile servants, happier no doubt than they were before or after, stopped there. While the mission was begun on the rational principle of governing races still in their childhood by methods adapted to that See also:stage in their See also:mental development, yet for one hundred and fifty years the " reductions " were conducted in the same manner, and when the See also:hour of trial came the Jesuit See also:civilization See also:fell like a house of See also:cards. These examples are sufficient to explain the final collapse of so many promising efforts. The individual Jesuit might be, and often was, a See also:hero, See also:saint and See also:martyr, but the system which he was obliged to administer was foredoomed to failure; and the suppression which came in 1773 was the natural result of forces and elements they had set in antagonism without the power of controlling. The influence of the Society since its restoration in 1814 has not been marked with greater success than in its previous history. It was natural after the restoration that an attempt should be made to pick up again the threads that were dropped; but soon they came to realize the truth of the saying of St Ignatius: " The Society shall adapt itself to the times and not the times to the Society." The political conditions of Europe have completely changed, and constitutionalism is unfavourable to that personal influence which, in former times, the Jesuits were able to bring to See also:bear upon the heads of states.

In Europe they confine themselves mainly to educational and ecclesiastical politics, although both See also:

Germany and France have followed the example of Portugal and refuse, on political grounds, to allow them to be in these countries. It would appear as though some of the Jesuits had not, even yet, learnt the lesson that meddling with politics has always been their ruin. The See also:main cause of any difficulty that may exist to-day with the Society is that the Jesuits are true to the teaching of that remarkable See also:panegyric, the Imago peimi saeculi Societatis (probably written by John Tollenarius in 1640), by identifying the Church with their own body, and being intolerant of all who will not share this view. Their power is still large in certain sections of the ecclesiastical world, but in secular affairs it is small. Moreover within the church itself there is a strong and growing feeling that the interests of Catholicism may necessitate a second and final suppression of the Society. Cardinal See also:Manning, a keen observer of times and influences, was wont to say:—" The work of 1773 was the work of God: and there is another 1773 coming." But, if this come, it will be due not to the pressure of secular governments, as in the 18th century, but to the action of the Church itself. The very nations which have See also:cast out the Society have shown no disposition to accept its own estimate and identify it with the Church; while the Church itself is not conscious of depending upon the Society. To the Church the Jesuits have been what the See also:Janissaries were to the See also:Ottoman See also:Empire, at first its defenders and its champions, but in the end its taskmasters. History.—The separate See also:article on Loyola tells of his early years, his conversion, and his first gathering of companions. It was not until See also:November 1537, when all See also:hope of going to the Holy See also:Land was given up, that any outward steps were taken to form these companions into an organized body. It was on the See also:eve of their going to Rome, for the second time, that the fathers met Ignatius at See also:Vicenza and it was determined to adopt a common rule and, at the See also:suggestion of Ignatius, the name of the Company of Jesus. Whatever may have been his private hopes and intentions, it was not until he, Laynez and See also:Faber (See also:Pierre Lefevre), in the name of their companions, were sent to lay their services at the feet of the pope that the history of the Society really begins.

On their arrival at Rome the three Jesuits were favourably received by Paul III., who at once appointed Faber to the See also:

chair of scripture and Laynez to that of scholastic theology in the university of the Sapienza. But they encountered much opposition and were even charged with See also:heresy; when this See also:accusation had been disposed of, there were still difficulties in the way of starting any new order. Despite the approval of Cardinal See also:Contarini and the goodwill of the pope (who is said to have exclaimed on perusing the See also:scheme of Ignatius, " The See also:finger of God is here "), there was a strong and general feeling that the See also:regular system had broken down and could not be wisely developed farther. Cardinal See also:Guidiccioni, one of the See also:commission of three appointed to examine the draft constitution, was known to See also:advocate the abolition of all existing orders, See also:save four which were to be remodelled and put under strict control. That very year, 1538, a commission of cardinals, including Reginald See also:hue, Contarini, Sadolet, Caraffa (afterwards Paul IV.), Fregoso and others, had reported that the conventual orders, which they had to deal with, had drifted into such a state that they should all be abolished. Not only so, but, when greater strictness of rule and of enclosure seemed the most needful reforms in communities that had become too secular in See also:tone, the proposal of Ignatius, to make it a first principle that the members of his institute should mix freely in the world and he as little marked off as possible externally from secular clerical life and usages, ran counter to all tradition and See also:prejudice, save that Caraffa's then See also:recent order of Theatines, which had some See also:analogy with the proposed Society, had taken some steps in the same direction. Ignatius and his companions, however, had but little doubt of 'iltimate success, and so bound themselves, on the 15th of See also:April 1539, to obey any superior chosen from amongst their body, and added on the 4th of May certain other rules, the most important of which was a vow of special allegiance to the pope for mission purposes to be taken by all the members of the society. But Guidiccioni, on a careful study of the papers, changed his mind; it is supposed that the cause of this change was in large measure the strong interest in the new scheme exhibited by John III., See also:king of Portugal, who instructed his See also:ambassador to See also:press it on the pope and to ask Ignatius to send some priests of his Society for mission work in Portugal and its Indian possessions. Francis Xavier and See also:Simon See also:Rodriguez were sent to the king in March 1540. Obstacles being cleared away, Paul III., on the 27th of See also:September 1540, issued his bull Regimini mililantis ecclesiae, by which he confirmed the new Society (the term " order " does not belong to it), but limited the members to sixty, a restriction which was removed by the same pope- in the bull Injunctum nobis of the 14th of March 1543. In the former bull, the pope gives the See also:text of the formula submitted by Ignatius as the scheme of the proposed society, and in it we get the founder's own ideas: . . This Society, instituted to this special end, namely, to offer spiritual See also:consolation for the See also:advancement of souls in life and Christian doctrine, for the See also:propagation of the faith by public See also:preaching and the See also:ministry of the word of God, spiritual exercises and works of charity and, especially, by the instruction of See also:children and ignorant people in See also:Christianity, and by the spiritual consolation of the faithful in Christ in See also:hearing confessions....

" In this original scheme it is clearly marked out " that this entire Society and all its members fight for God under the faithful obedience of the most sacred See also:

lord, the pope, and the other Roman pontiffs his successors "; and Ignatius makes particular mention that each member should " be bound by a special vow," beyond that formal obligation under which all Christians are of obeying the pope, "so that whatsoever the present and other Roman pontiffs for the time being shall ordain, pertaining to the advancement of souls and the propagation of the faith, to whatever provinces he shall resolve to send us, we are straightway bound to obey, as far as in us lies, without any tergiversation or excuse, whether he send us among the See also:Turks or to any other unbelievers in being, even to those parts called See also:India, or to any heretics or schismatics or likewise to any believers." Obedience to the general is enjoined " in all things pertaining to the institute of the Society . . . and in him they shall acknowledge Christ as though present, and as far as is becoming shall venerate him "; poverty is enjoined, and this rule affects not only the individual but the common sustentation or care of the Society, except that in the case of colleges revenues are allowed " to be applied to the wants and necessities of the students "; and the private recitation of the Office is distinctly mentioned. On the other hand, the See also:perpetuity of the general's office during his life was no part of the original scheme. On the 7th of April 1541, Ignatius was unanimously chosen general. His refusal of this post was overruled, so he entered on his office on the 13th of April; and two days after, the newly constituted Society took its formal corporate vows in the See also:basilica of See also:San Paolo fuori le mura. Scarcely was the Society launched when its members dispersed in various directions to their new tasks. Alfonso Salmeron and See also:Pasquier-Brouet, as papal delegates, were sent on a secret mission to See also:Ireland to encourage the native clergy and people to resist the religious changes introduced by Henry VIII.; See also:Nicholas Bobadilla went to See also:Naples; Faber, first to the See also:diet of See also:Worms and then to Spain; Laynez and See also:Claude le See also:Jay to Germany, while Ignatius busied himself at Rome in good works and in See also:drawing up the constitutions and completing the Spiritual Exercises. Success crowned these first. efforts; and the Society began to win golden opinions. The first college was founded at Coimbra in 1542 by John III. of Portugal and put under the rectorship of Rodriguez. It was designed as a training school to feed the Indian mission of which Francis Xavier had already taken the oversight, while a seminary at See also:Goa was the second institution founded outside Rome in connexion with the Society. Both from the original scheme and from the See also:foundation at Coimbra it is clear that the original idea of the colleges was to provide for the education of future Jesuits. In Spain, See also:national See also:pride in the founder aided the Society's cause almost as much as royal patronage did in Portugal; and the third house was opened in Gandia under the protection of its duke, Francisco Borgia, a See also:grandson of See also:Alexander VI.

In Germany, the Jesuits were eagerly welcomed as the only persons able to meet the See also:

Lutherans on equal terms. Only in France, among the countries which still were See also:united with the Roman Church, was their advance checked, owing to political distrust of their Spanish origin, together with the hostility of the Sorbonne and the bishop of Paris. However, after many difficulties, they succeeded in getting a footing through the help of See also:Guillaume du Prat, bishop of Clermont (d. 1560), who founded a college for them in 1545 in the See also:town of Billom, besides making over to them his house at Paris, the hotel de Clermont, which became the See also:nucleus of the after-wards famous college of Louis-le-See also:Grand, while a formal legalization was granted to them by the states-general at See also:Poissy in 1561. In Rome, Paul III.'s favour did not lessen. He bestowed on then the church of St See also:Andrea and conferred at the same time the valuable See also:privilege of making and altering their own statutes; besides the other points, in 1546, which Ignatius had still more at See also:heart, as touching the very essence of his institute, namely, exemption from ecclesiastical offices and dignities and from the task of acting as See also:directors and confessors to convents of See also:women. The former of these measures effectually stopped any drain of the best members away from the society and limited their hopes within its See also:bounds, by putting them more freely at the general's disposal, especially as it was provided that the final vows could not be annulled, nor could a professed member be dismissed, save by the See also:joint action of the general and the pope. The regulation as to convents seems partly due to a desire to avoid the worry and See also:expenditure of time involved in the discharge of such offices and partly to a conviction that penitents living in enclosure, as all religious persons then were, would be of no effective use to the Society; whereas the founder, against the wishes of several of his companions, laid much stress on the duty of accepting the post of confessor to kings, queens and women of high rank when opportunity presented itself. And the year 1546 is notable in the See also:annals of the Society as that in which it embarked on its great educational career, especially by the See also:annexation of free day-schools to all its colleges. The council of Trent, in its first period, seemed to increase the reputation of the Society; for the pope See also:chose Laynez, Faber and Salmeron to act as his theologians in that See also:assembly, and in this capacity they had no little influence in framing its decrees. When the council reassembled under See also:Pius IV., Laynez and Salmeron again attended in the same capacity. It is sometimes said that the council formally approved of the Society.

This is impossible; for as the Society had received the papal approval, that of the council would have been impertinent as well as unnecessary. St See also:

Charles Borromeo wrote to the presiding cardinals, on the i ith of May 1562, saying that, as France was disaffected to the Jesuits whom the pope wished to see established in every country, Pius IV. desired, when the council was occupying itself about regulars, that it should make some honourable mention of the Society in order to recommend it. This was done in the twenty-fifth session (cap. XVI., d.r.) when the See also:decree was passed that at the end of the time of probation novices should either be professed or dismissed; and the words of the council are: " By these things, however, the See also:Synod does not intend to make any innovation or See also:prohibition, so as to hinder the religious order of Clerks of the Society of Jesus from being able to serve God and His Church, in accordance with their pious institute approved of by the Holy Apostolic See." In 1548 the Society received a valuable recruit in the person of Francisco Borgia, duke of Gandia, afterwards thrice general, while two important events marked 1550—the foundation of the Collegio Romano and a fresh See also:confirmation of the Society by See also:Julius III. The German college, for the children of poor nobles, was founded in 1552; and in the same year Ignatius firmly settled the discipline of the Society by putting down, with promptness and severity, some attempts at independent action on the part of Rodriguez at Coimbra— this being the occasion of the famous letter on obedience; while 1553 saw the despatch of a mission to See also:Abyssinia with one of the fathers as See also:patriarch, and the first rift within the See also:lute when the pope thought that the Spanish Jesuits were taking part with the See also:emperor against the Holy See. Paul IV. (whose election alarmed the Jesuits, for they had not found him very friendly as cardinal) was for a time managed with supreme tact by Ignatius, whom he respected personally. In 1556, the founder died and left the Society consisting of forty-five professed fathers and two thousand ordinary members, distributed over twelve provinces, with more than a hundred colleges and houses. After the death of the first general there was an See also:interregnum of two years, with Laynez as See also:vicar. During this long period he occupied himself with completing the constitutions by incorporating certain declarations, said to be Ignatian, which explained and sometimes completely altered the meaning of the original text. Laynez was an astute politician and saw the vast capabilities of the Society over a far wider field than the founder contemplated; and he prepared to give it the direction that it has since followed. In some senses, this learned and consummately See also:clever man may be looked upon as the real founder of the Society as history knows it.

Having carefully prepared the way, he summoned the general congregation from which he emerged as second general in 1556. As soon as Ignatius had died Paul IV. announced his intention of instituting reforms in the Society, especially in two points: the public recitation of the office in choir and the See also:

limitation of the general's office to a term of three years. Despite all the protests and negotiations of Laynez, the pope remained obstinate; and there was nothing but to submit. On the 8th of September 1558, two points were added to the constitutions: that the generalship shou!.d be triennial and not perpetual, although after the three years the general might be confirmed ; and that the canonical See also:hours should be observed in choir after the manner of the other orders, but with that moderation which should seem expedient to the general. Taking advantage of this last clause, Laynez applied the new law to two houses only, namely, Rome and See also:Lisbon, the other houses contenting themselves with singing See also:vespers on feast days; and as soon as Paul IV. died, Laynez, acting on advice, quietly ignored for the future the orders of the See also:late pope. He also succeeded in increasing further the already enormous powers of the general. Laynez took a leading part in the colloquy of Poissy in 1561 between the Catholics and Huguenots;and obtained a legal footing from the states-general for colleges of the Society in France. He died in 1564, leaving the Society increased to eighteen provinces with a hundred and thirty colleges, and was succeeded by Francisco Borgia. During the third general-See also:ate, Pius V. confirmed all the former privileges, and in the amplest form extended to the Society, as being a mendicant institute, all favours that had been or might afterwards be granted to such mendicant bodies. It was a trifling set-off that in 1567 the pope again enjoined the fathers to keep choir and to admit only the professed to priests' orders, especially as Gregory XIII. rescinded both these injunctions in 1573; and indeed, as regards the hours, all that Pius V. was able to obtain was the nominal concession that the breviary should be recited in choir in the professed houses only, and that not of necessity by more than two persons at a time. Everard Mercurian, a See also:Fleming, and a subject of Spain, succeeded Borgia in 1573, being forced on the Society by the pope, in preference to Polanco, Ignatius's secretary and the vicar-general, who was rejected partly as a Spaniard and still more because he was a " New Christian " of Jewish origin and therefore objected to in Spain itself. During his term of office there took place the troubles in Rome concerning the English college and the subsequent Jesuit rule over that institution; and in 158o the first Jesuit mission, headed by the redoubtable Robert Parsons and the saintly See also:Edmund See also:Campion, set out for England.

This mission, on one side, carried on an active propaganda against Elizabeth in favour of Spain; and on the other, among the true missionaries, was marked with devoted zeal and heroism even to the ghastly death of traitors. Claude Acquaviva, the fifth general, held office from 1581 to 1615, a time almost coinciding with the high tide of the successful reaction, chiefly due to the Jesuits. He was an able, strong-willed man, and crushed what was tantamount to a See also:

rebellion in Spain. It was during this struggle that Mariana, the historian and the author of the famous De rege in which he defends tyrannicide, wrote his See also:treatise On the Defects in the Government of the Society. He confessed freely that the Society had faults and that there was a great deal of unrest among the members; and he mentioned among the various points calling for reform the education of the novices and students; the state of the lay brother and the possessions of the Society; the spying system, which he declared to be carried so far that, if the general's archives at Rome should be searched, not one Jesuit's character would be found to See also:escape; the See also:monopoly of the higher offices by a small clique: and the See also:absence of all encouragement and recompense for the best men of the Society. It was chiefly during the generalship of Acquaviva that the Society began to gain an evil reputation which eclipsed its good See also:report. In France the Jesuits joined, if they did not originate, the See also:league against Henry of See also:Navarre. See also:Absolution was refused by them to those who would not join in the See also:Guise rebellion, and Acquaviva is said to have tried to stop them, but in vain. The assassination of Henry III. in the interests of the league and the wounding of Henry IV. in 1594 by Chastel, a See also:pupil of theirs, revealed the danger that the whole Society was See also:running by the intrigues of a few men. The Jesuits were banished from France in 1594, but were allowed to return by Henry IV. under conditions; as See also:Sully has recorded, the king declared his only See also:motive to be the expediency of not See also:driving them into a corner with possible disastrous results to his life, and because his only hope of tranquillity lay in appeasing them and their powerful friends. In England the political schemings of Parsons were no small factors in the odium which fell on the Society at large; and his determination to See also:capture the English Catholics as an apanage of the Society, to the exclusion of all else, was an object lesson to the rest of Europe of a restless ambition and lust of domination which were to find many imitators. The political turn which was being given by some to the Society, to the detriment of its real spiritual work, evoked the fears of the wiser heads of the body; and in the fifth general congregation held in 1593–1594 it was decreed: " Whereas in these times of difficulty and danger it has happened through the See also:fault of certain individuals, through ambition and intemperate zeal, that our institute has been See also:ill spoken of in See also:divers places and before divers sovereigns .

. . it is severely and strictly forbidden to all members of the Society to interfere in any manner whatever in public affairs even though they be thereto invited; or to deviate from the institute through entreaty, persuasion or any other motive whatever." It would have been well had Acquaviva enforced this decree; but Parsons was allowed to keep on with his work, and other - Jesuits in France for many years after directed, to the loss of religion, affairs of state. In ,6o5 took place in England the See also:

Gunpowder See also:Plot, in which Henry Garnet, the superior of the Society in England, was implicated. That the Jesuits were the instigators of the Jesuits. Though the political See also:weight of the Society continued of the plot there is no evidence, but they were in See also:close See also:touch with the conspirators, of whose designs Garnet had a general know-ledge. There is now no reasonable doubt that he and other Jesuits were legally accessories, and that the condemnation of Garnet as a traitor was substantially just (see GARNET, HENRY). It was during Acquaviva's generalship that See also:Philip II. of Spain complained bitterly of the Society to See also:Sixtus V., and encouraged him in those plans of reform (even to changing the name) which were only cut short by the pope's death in 1590, and also that the long protracted discussions on grace, wherein the Dominicans contended against the Jesuits, were carried on at Rome with' little practical result, by the Congregation de auxiliis, which sat from 1598 till 1607. The Ratio Studiorum took its shape during this time. The Jesuit influence at Rome was supported by the Spanish ambassador; but when Henry IV. " went to See also:Mass," the See also:balance inclined to the side of France, and the Spanish monopoly became a thing of the past. Acquaviva saw the expulsion of the Jesuits from See also:Venice in 1606 for siding with Paul V. when he placed the See also:republic under See also:interdict, but did not live to see their recall, which took place at the inter-cession of Louis XIV. in 1657. He also had to banish Parsons from Rome, by order of Clement VIII., who was wearied with the perpetual complaints made against that intriguer. Gregory XIV., by the bull Ecclesiae Christi (See also:July 28, 1591), again confirmed the Society, and granted that Jesuits might, for true cause, be expelled from the body without any form of trial or even documentary See also:procedure, besides denouncing excommunications against every one, save the pope or his legates, who directly or indirectly infringed the constitutions of the Society or attempted to bring about any change therein.

Under Vitelleschi, the next general, the Society celebrated its first See also:

centenary on the 25th of September 1639, the hundredth anniversary of the verbal approbation given to the scheme by Paul III. During this hundred years the Society had grown to thirty-six provinces, with eight hundred houses containing some fifteen thousand members. In 164o broke out the great Jansenist controversy, in which the Society took the leading part on one side and finally secured the victory. In this same year, considering themselves ill-used by Olivarez, prime See also:minister of Philip IV. of Spain, the Jesuits powerfully aided the revolution which placed the duke of See also:Braganza on the See also:throne of Portugal; and their services were rewarded for nearly 'one hundred years with the practical control of ecclesiastical and almost of See also:civil affairs in that See also:kingdom. The Society also gained ground steadily in France; for, though held in check by Richelieu and little more favoured by See also:Mazarin, yet from the moment that Louis XIV. took the reins, their See also:star was in the ascendant, and Jesuit confessors, the most celebrated of whom were See also:Francois de La See also:Chaise (q.v.) and See also:Michel Le Tellier (1643-1719), guided the policy of the king, not hesitating to take his side in his See also:quarrel with the Holy See, which nearly resulted in a See also:schism, nor to sign the Gallican articles. Their hostility to the Huguenots forced on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, and their war against their Jansenist opponents did not cease till the very walls of See also:Port Royal were demolished in 1710, even to the very See also:abbey church itself, and the bodies of the dead taken with every See also:mark of insult from their See also:graves and literally flung to the See also:dogs to devour. But while thus gaining power in one direction, the Society was losing it in another. The See also:Japanese mission had vanished in blood in 1651; and though many Jesuits died with their converts bravely as martyrs for the faith, yet it is impossible to acquit them of a large share in the causes of that overthrow. It was also about this same period that the See also:grave See also:scandal of the Chinese and See also:Malabar rites bggan to attract See also:attention in Europe, and to make thinking men ask seriously whether the Jesuit missionaries in those parts taught anything which could fairly be called Christianity at all. When it was remembered, too, that they had decided, at a council held at See also:Lima, that it was inexpedient to impose any act of Christian devotion except See also:baptism, on the See also:South See also:American converts, without the greatest precautions, on the ground of intellectual difficulties, it is not wonderful that this doubt was not satisfactorily cleared up, notably in See also:face of the charges brought against the Society by Bernardin de Cardonas, bishop of Paraguay, and the saintly Juan de Palafox (q.v.), bishop of Angelopolis in See also:Mexico. But " the terrible power in the universal church, the great riches and the extraordinary See also:prestige " of the Society, which Palafox complained had raised it " above all dignities, See also:laws, See also:councils and apostolic constitutions," carried with them the seeds of rapid and inevitable decay. A succession of devout but incapable generals, after the death of Acquaviva, saw the See also:gradual secularization of tone by the flocking in of recruits of rank and wealth desirous to share in the glories and influence of the Society, but not well adapted to in-crease them.

The general's supremacy received a See also:

shock when the See also:eleventh general congregation appointed See also:Oliva as vicar, with the right of succession and powers that practically superseded those of the general Goswin See also:Nickel, whose infirmities, it is said, did not permit him tc govern with the necessary application and vigour; and an attempt was made to depose Tirso Gonzalez, the thirteenth general, whose views on probabilism diverged from those favoured by the rest to increase in the cabinets of Europe, it was being steadily weakened internally. The Jesuits abandoned the system of free education which had won them so much influence and See also:honour; by attaching themselves exclusively to the interests of courts, they lost favour with the See also:middle and lower classes; and above all, their monopoly of power and patronage in France, with the fatal use they had made of it, See also:drew down the bitterest hostility upon them. It was to their credit, indeed, that the encyclopaedists attacked them as the foremost representatives of Christianity, but they are accountable in no small degree in France, as in England, for alienating the minds of men from the religion for which they professed to work. But the most fatal part of the policy of the Society was its activity, wealth and importance as a great trading See also:firm with See also:branch houses scattered over the richest countries of the world. Its founder, with a See also:wise See also:instinct, had forbidden the See also:accumulation of wealth; its own constitutions, as revised in the 84th decree of the See also:sixth general congregation, had forbidden all pursuits of a commercial nature, as also had various popes; but nevertheless the See also:trade went on unceasingly, necessarily with the full know-ledge of the general, unless it be pleaded that the system of obligatory espionage had completely broken down. The first muttering of the See also:storm which was soon to break was heard in a breve issued in 1741 by Benedict XIV., wherein he denounced the Jesuit offenders as " disobedient, contumacious, captious and reprobate persons," and enacted many stringent regulations for their better government. The first serious attack came from a country where they had been long dominant. In 1753 Spain and Portugal exchanged certain American provinces with each other, which involved a See also:transfer of sovereign rights over Paraguay; but it was also provided that the populations should severally migrate also, that the subjects of each See also:crown might remainthe same as before. The inhabitants of the "reductions," whom the Jesuits had trained in the use of See also:European arms and discipline, naturally See also:rose in defence of their homes, and attacked the troops and authorities. Their previous docility and their entire submission to the Jesuits left no possible doubt as to the source of the rebellion, and gave the enemies of the Jesuits a handle against them that was not forgotten. In 1757 Carvalho, See also:marquis of See also:Pombal, prime minister of Joseph I. of Portugal, and an old pupil of the Jesuits at Coimbra, dismissed the three Jesuit chaplains of the king and named three secular priests in their See also:stead. He next complained to Benedict XIV. that the trading operations of the Society hampered the commercial prosperity of the nation, and asked for remedial measures.

The pope, who knew the situation, committed a visitation of the Society to Cardinal Saldanha, an intimate friend of Pombal, who issued a severe decree against the Jesuits and ordered the See also:

confiscation of all their merchandise. But at this juncture Benedict XIV., the most learned and able pope of the period, was succeeded by a pope strongly in favour of the Jesuits, Clement XIJI. Pombal, finding no help from Rome, adopted other means. The king was fired at and wounded on returning from a visit to his See also:mistress on the 3rd of September 1758. The duke of See also:Aveiro and other high personages were tried and executed for See also:conspiracy; while some of the Jesuits, who had undoubtedly been in communication with them, were charged, on doubtful evidence, with complicity in the attempted assassination. Pombal charged the whole Society with the possible See also:guilt of a few, and, unwilling to wait the dubious issue of an application to the pope for See also:licence to try them in the civil courts, whence they were exempt, issued on the 1st of September 1759 a decree ordering the immediate See also:deportation of every Jesuit from Portugal and all its dependencies and their suppression by the bishops in the schools and See also:universities. Those in Portugal were at once shipped, in great misery, to the papal states, and were soon followed by those in the colonies. In France, Madame de See also:Pompadour was their enemy because they had refused her absolution while she remained the king's mistress; but the immediate cause of their ruin was the See also:bankruptcy of Father Lavalette, the Jesuit superior in See also:Martinique, a daring speculator, who failed, after trading for some years, for 2,400,000 francs and brought ruin upon some French commercial houses of See also:note. Lorenzo See also:Ricci, then general of the Society, repudiated the See also:debt, alleging lack of authority on Lavalette's part to See also:pledge the credit of the Society, and he was sued by the creditors. Losing his cause, he appealed to the parlement of Paris, and it, to decide the issue raised by Ricci, required the constitutions of the Jesuits to be produced in evidence, and affirmed the judgment of the courts below. But the publicity given to a document scarcely known till then raised the utmost indignation against the Society. A royal commission, appointed by the duc de See also:Choiseul to examine the constitutions, convoked a private assembly of fifty-one See also:arch-bishops and bishops under the See also:presidency of Cardinal de See also:Luynes, all of whom except six voted that the unlimited authority of the general was incompatible with the laws of France, and that the See also:appointment of a See also:resident vicar, subject to those laws, was the only See also:solution of the question See also:fair on all sides.

Ricci replied with the See also:

historical See also:answer, Sint ut sunt, See also:aut non sint; and after some further delay, during which much interest was exerted in their favour, the Jesuits were suppressed by an edict in November 1764, but suffered to remain on the footing of secular priests, a grace withdrawn in 1767, when they were expelled from the kingdom. In the very same year, Charles III. of Spain, a monarch known for personal devoutness, convinced, on evidence not now forthcoming, that the Jesuits were plotting against his authority, prepared, through his minister D'See also:Aranda, a decree suppressing the Society in every part of his dominions. Sealed despatches were sent to every Spanish See also:colony, to be opened on the same day, the 2nd of April 1767, when the measure was to take effect in Spain itself, and the expulsion was relentlessly carried out, nearly six thousand priests being deported from Spain alone, and sent to the Italian See also:coast, whence, however, they were repelled by the orders of the pope and Ricci himself, finding a See also:refuge at Certe in See also:Corsica, after some months' suffering in over-crowded vessels at See also:sea. The general's object may probably have been to accentuate the harshness with which the fathers had been treated, and so to increase public sympathy, but the actual result of his policy was blame for the See also:cruelty with which he enhanced their misfortunes, for the poverty of Corsica made even a See also:bare subsistence scarcely procurable for them there. The See also:Bourbon courts of Naples and See also:Parma followed the example of France and Spain; Clement XIII. retorted with a bull launched at the weakest adversary, and declaring the rank and title of the duke of Parma forfeit. The Bourbon sovereigns threatened to make war on the pope in return (France, indeed, seizing on the See also:county of See also:Avignon), and a joint note demanding a retractation, and the abolition of the Jesuits, was presented by the French ambassador at Rome on the loth of December 1768 in the name of France, Spain and the two Sicilies. The pope, a man of eighty-two, died of See also:apoplexy, brought on by the shock, early in 1769. Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli, a conventual Franciscan, was chosen to succeed him, and took the name of Clement XIV. He endeavoured to avert the decision forced upon him, but, as Portugal joined the Bourbon league, and Maria Theresa with her son the emperor Joseph II. ceased to protect the Jesuits, there remained only the See also:petty kingdom of See also:Sardinia in their favour, though the fall of Choiseul in France raised the hopes of the Society for a time. The pope began with some preliminary measures, permitting first the renewal of lawsuits against the Society, which had been suspended by papal authority, and which, indeed, had in no case been ever successful at Rome. He then closed the Collegio Romano, on the plea of its insolvency, seized the houses at See also:Frascati and See also:Tivoli, and broke up the establishments in See also:Bologna and the Legations. Finally on the 21st of July 1773 the famous breve See also:Dominus ac Redemptor appeared, suppressing the Society of Jesus.

This remarkable document opens by citing a long See also:

series of precedents for the suppression of religious orders by the Holy See, amongst which occurs the ill-omened instance of the See also:Templars. It then briefly sketches the objects and history of the Jesuits themselves. It speaks of their See also:defiance of their own constitution, expressly revived by Paul V., forbidding them to meddle in politics; of the great ruin to souls caused by their quarrels with local ordinaries and the other religious orders, their condescension to heathen usages in the See also:East, and the disturbances, resulting in persecutions of the Church, which they had stirred up even in Catholic countries, so that several popes had been obliged to punish them. Seeing then that the Catholic sovereigns had been forced to expel them, that many bishops and other eminent persons demanded their extinction, and that the Society had ceased to fulfil the intention of its institute, the pope declares it necessary for the peace of the Church that it should be sup-pressed, extinguished, abolished and abrogated for ever, with all its houses, colleges, schools and hospitals; transfers all the authority of its general or officers to the local ordinaries; forbids the. reception of any more novices, directing that such as were actually in probation should be dismissed, and declaring that profession in the Society should not serve as a title to holy orders. Priests of the Society are given the See also:option of either joining other orders or remaining as secular clergy, under obedience to the ordinaries, who are empowered to See also:grant or withhold from them licences to hear confessions. Such of the fathers as are engaged in the work of education are permitted to continue, on condition of abstaining from lax and questionable doctrines apt to cause strife and trouble. The question of missions is reserved, and the relaxations granted to the Society in such matters as See also:fasting, reciting the hours and See also:reading heretical books, are withdrawn; while the breve ends with clauses carefully drawn to See also:bar any legal exceptions that might be taken against its full validity and obligation. It has been necessary to cite these heads of the breve because the apologists of the Society allege that no motive influenced the pope save the desire of peace at any See also:price, and that he did not believe in the culpability of the fathers. The categorical charges made in the document rebut this plea. The pope . followed up this breve by appointing a congregation of cardinals to take See also:possession of the temporalities of the Society; and armed it with See also:summary powers against all who should attempt to retain or conceal any of the See also:property. He also threw Lorenzo Ricci, the general, into See also:prison, first in the English college and then in the See also:castle of St Angelo, where he died in 1775, under the pontificate of Pius VI., who, though not unfavourable to the Society, and owing his own advancement to 'it, dared not See also:release him, probably because his continued imprisonment was made a condition by the powers who enjoyed a right of See also:veto in papal elections. In September 1774 Clement XIV. died after much suffering, and the question has been hotly debated ever since whether See also:poison was 'the cause of his death.

But the latest re-searches have shown that there is no evidence to support the1 theory of poison. Salicetti, the pope's physician, denied that' the body showed signs of poisoning, and Tanucci, Neapolitan ambassador at Rome, who had a large share in procuring the breve of suppression, entirely acquits the Jesuits, while F. Theiner, no friend to the Society, does the like. At the date of this suppression, the Society had 41 provinces and 22,589 members, of whom 11,295 were priests. Far from submitting to the papal breve, the ex-Jesuits, after some in-effectual attempts at direct resistance, withdrew into the territories of the,free-thinking sovereigns of See also:

Russia and See also:Prussia, Frederick II. and See also:Catherine II., who became their active friends and protectors; and the fathers alleged as a principle, in so far as their theology is concerned, that no papal bull is binding in a ,state whose sovereign has not approved and authorized its publication and See also:execution. Russia formed the headquarters of the Society, and two forged breves were speedily circulated, being dated See also:June 9 and June 29, 1774, approving their establishment in Russia, and implying the See also:repeal of the breve of suppression. But these are contradicted by the See also:tenor of five genuine breves issued in September 1774 to the See also:archbishop of See also:Gnesen, and making certain assurances to the ex-Jesuits, on condition of their complete obedience to the injunctions already laid on them. The Jesuits also pleaded a verbal approbation by Pius VI., technically known as an Oraculum vivae vocis, but this is invalid for purposes of law unless reduced to writing and duly authenticated. They elected three Poles successively as generals, taking, how-ever, only the title of vicars, till on the 7th of March 18or Pius VII. granted them liberty to reconstitute themselves .in north Russia, and permitted Kareu, then vicar, to exercise full authority as general. On the 3oth of July 1804 a similar breve restored the Jesuits in the Two Sicilies, at the See also:express desire of See also:Ferdinand IV., fhe pope thus anticipating the further action of 1814, when, by the constitution Sollicitudo omnium Ecclesiarum, he revoked the action of Clement XIV., and formally restored the Society to corporate legal existence, yet not only omitted any censure of his predecessor's conduct, but all vindication of the Jesuits from the heavy charges in the breve Dominus ac Redemptor. In France, even after their expulsion in 1765, they had maintained a pre-carious footing in the country under the partial disguise and names of " Fathers of the Faith " or " Clerks of the Sacred Heart," but were obliged by See also:Napoleon I. to retire in 1804. They re-appeared under their true name in 1814, and obtained formal licence in 1822, but became the objects of so much hostility that Charles X. deprived them by See also:ordinance of the right of instruction, and obliged all applicants for licences as teachers to make See also:oath that they did not belong to any community unrecognized by the laws.

They were dispersed again by the revolution of July 1830, but soon reappeared and, though put to much inconvenience during the latter years of Louis Philippe's reign, notably in 1845, maintained their footing, recovered the right to teach freely after the revolution of 1848, and gradually became the leading educational and ecclesiastical power in France, notably under the Second Empire, till they were once more expelled by the See also:

Ferry laws of 188o, though they quietly returned since the execution of those measures. They were again expelled by the Law of Associations of 19or. In Spain they came back with Ferdinand VII., but were expelled at the constitutional rising in 1820, returning in 1823, when the duke of See also:Angouleme's See also:army replaced Ferdinand on his throne; they were driven out once more by See also:Espartero in 1835, and have had no legal position since, though their presence is openly tolerated. In Portugal, ranging themselves on the side of Dom See also:Miguel, they fell with his cause, and were exiled in 1834. There are some to this day in Lisbon under the name of " Fathers of the Faith." Russia, which had been their warmest See also:patron, drove them from St See also:Petersburg and See also:Moscow in 1813, and from the whole empire in 182o, mainly on the plea of attempted proselytizing in the imperial army. See also:Holland drove them out in 1816, and, by giving them thus a valid excuse for aiding the Belgian revolution of 183o, secured them the strong position they have ever since held in See also:Belgium; but they have succeeded in returning to Holland. They were expelled from See also:Switzerland in 1847–1848 for the part they were charged with in exciting the war of the Sonderbund. In south Germany, inclusive of See also:Austria and See also:Bavaria, their annals since their restoration have been uneventful; but in north Germany, owing to the footing Frederick II. had given them in Prussia, they became very powerful, especially iii the See also:Rhine provinces, and, gradually moulding the younger See also:generation of clergy after the close of the War of Liberation, succeeded in spreading Ultra-montane views amongst them, and so leading up to the difficulties with the civil government which issued in the See also:Falk laws, and their own expulsion by decree of the German See also:parliament (June 19, 1872). Since then many attempts have been made to procure the recall of the Society to the German Empire, but without success, although as individuals they are now allowed in the country. In Great See also:Britain, whither they began to straggle over during the revolutionary troubles at the close of the 18th century, and where, practically unaffected by the clause directed against them in the Emancipation Act of. 1829, their chief See also:settlement has been at Stonyhurst in See also:Lancashire, an See also:estate conferred on them by Thomas Weld in 1795, they have been unmolested; but there has been little See also:affinity to the order in the See also:British temperament, and the English province has consequently never risen to numerical or intellectual importance in the Society. In Rome itself, its progress after the restoration was at first slow, and it was not till the reign of See also:Leo XII.

(1823–1829) that it recovered its place as the chief educational body there. It advanced steadily under Gregory XVI., and, though it was at first shunned by Pius IX., it secured his entire confidence after his return from See also:

Gaeta in 1849, and obtained from him a special breve erecting the See also:staff of its See also:literary See also:journal, the Civiltd Cattolica, into a perpetual college under the general of the Jesuits, for the purpose of teaching and propagating the faith in its pages. How, with this pope's support throughout his long reign, cne gradual filling of nearly all the See also:sees of Latin Christendom with bishops of their own selection, and their practical capture, directly or indirectly, of the education of the clergy in seminaries, they contrived to stamp out the last remains of See also:independence everywhere, and to crown the Ultramontane See also:triumph with the Vatican Decrees, is matter of See also:familiar knowledge. Leo XIII., while favouring them somewhat, never gave them his full confidence; and by his See also:adhesion to the Thomist philosophy and theology, and his active work for the regeneration and progress of the older orders; he made another suppression possible by destroying much of their prestige. But the usual sequence has been observed under Pius X., who appeared to be greatly in favour of the Society and to rely upon them for many of the measures of his pontificate. The Society has been ruled by twenty-five generals and four vicars from its foundation to the present day (1910). Of all the various nationalities represented in the Society, neither France, its original See also:cradle, nor England, has ever given it a head, while Spain, See also:Italy, Holland, Belgium, Germany and See also:Poland, were all represented. The numbers of the Society are not accurately known, but are estimated at about 20,000, in all parts of the world; and of these the English, Irish and American Jesuits are under 3000. have follow: The generals of the Jesuits been as I. Ignatius de Loyola (Spaniard) .. 1541–1556 2. Diego Laynez (Spaniard) ...

1558–1565 3. Francisco Borgia (Spaniard) 1565–1572 4. Everard Mercurian (Belgian) 1573–1580 5. Claudio Acquaviva (Neapolitan) . 1581–1615 6. Mutio Vitelleschi (Roman) . 1615–1645 7. Vincenzio Caraffa (Neapolitan) 1646–1649 8. See also:

Francesco See also:Piccolomini (Florentine). 1649–1651 9. Alessandro Gottofredi (Roman) 1652 io. Goswin Nickel (German) .

. 1652–1664 11. Giovanni Paolo Oliva (Genoese) vicar-general and 1664–1681 coadjutor, 1661; general 12. Charles de Noyelle (Belgian) 1682–1686 13. Tirso Gonzalez (Spaniard) 1687–17o5 14. Michele Angelo Tamburini (Modenese) 1706–1730 15. See also:

Franz See also:Retz (Bohemian) 1730–1750 16. Ignazio See also:Visconti (Milanese) 1751–1755 17. Alessandro Centurioni (Genoese) 1755–1757 18. Lorenzo Ricci (Florentine) . . 1758–1775 a. See also:Stanislaus Czerniewicz (See also:Pole), vicar-general 1782–1785 b. See also:Gabriel Lienkiewicz (Pole), 1785–1798 c.

Franciscus Xavier Kareu (Pole), (general in 1799–1802 Russia, 7th March 18o1) . . . d. Gabriel See also:

Gruber (German) 1802–1805 19. Thaddaeus See also:Brzozowski (Pole) .. 1805–1820 20. Aloysio Fortis (Veronese) 1820–1829 21. Johannes Roothaan (Dutchman) 1829–1853 22. See also:Peter Johannes See also:Beckx (Belgian) 1853–1884 23. Antoine Anderledy (Swiss) . 1884–1892 24. Luis See also:Martin (Spanish) 1892–1906 25.

Francis Xavier Wernz (German) .. 1906 The bibliography of Jesuitism is of enormous extent, and it is impracticable to cite more than a few of the most important works. They are as follows: Institutum Societatis Jesu (7 vols., Avignon, 183o–1838) ; Orlandini, Historia Societatis Jesu (See also:

Antwerp, 162o) ; Imago prima saeculi Societatis Jesu (Antwerp, 164o) ; See also:Nieremberg, See also:Vida de San Ignacio de Loyola (9 vols., fol., See also:Madrid, 1645–1736) ; See also:Genelli, Life of St Ignatius of Loyola (See also:London, 1872) ; Backer, Bibliotheque des ecrivains de la Compagnie de Jesus (7 vols., Paris, 1853–1861) ; Cretineau Joly, Histoire de la Compagnie de Jesus (6 vols., Paris, 1844) ; Guettee, Histoire des Jesuites (3 vols., Paris, 1858–1859) ; See also:Wolff, Allgemeine Geschichte der Jesuiten (4 vols., See also:Zurich, 1789–1792) ; See also:Gioberti, Il Gesuita moderno (See also:Lausanne, 1846) ; F. See also:Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World and The Jesuits in North America (See also:Boston, 1868) ; Lettres edifaantes et curieuses, ecrites des missions etrangeres, avec See also:les Annales de la propagation de la foi (4o vols., See also:Lyons, 1819–1854); Saint-Priest, Histoire de la chute des Jesuites au X VIII' Siecle (Paris, 1844) ; See also:Ranke, Romische Papste (3 vols., See also:Berlin, 18.38); E. See also:Taunton, History of the Jesuits in England (London, 1901) ; Thomas See also:Hughes, S.J., History of the Society of Jesus in North America (London and New See also:York, 1907) ; R. G. Thwaites, Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents (73 vols. See also:Cleveland, 1896–1901). (R. F. L.; E.

End of Article: JESUITS

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