SWITZERLAND , a republican See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

4. To the north of this great northern outlier rises the See also:

• JURA
• JURA (" deer island ")

The main chain cf the Alps rises in Swiss territory to the height of 15,217 ft. in the loftiest See also:

• SUMMIT

Switzerland sends its See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

Alpine tarns are innumerable. Of the countless waterfalls in Switzerland those of the Rhine (near Schaffhausen) have See also:

• VOLUME

St Gall (157) ranks in this respect after Zurich (180.8) and See also:

• AARGAU (Fr. Argovie)

Both the Oligocene and the Miocene beds are, for the most part, of fresh-water or brackish-water origin, but the See also:

• MIDDLE

At Lugano the See also:

• AVERAGE

Thirteen cantons showed an increase lower than this average, the lowest of all being Aargau, Glarus and Lucerne; while in Bern the increase of the towns did not counterbalance the diminution in the country districts. The nine cantons which increased above the average See also:

• RATE

The number of inhabited houses See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

The same proportion prevailed in 185o, See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

The most interesting cases are the cantons of Fribourg (q.v.) and the Valais (q.v.), in which French is advancing at the expense of German. Chief Political Divisions and Towns.—When considering Switzerland it must never be forgotten that, strictly speaking, the only political " divisions " are the 187 " districts " into which the cantons are divided (Bern has 30, Vaud 19 and St Gall 15, no others having over 15). These are administrative districts, created for political purposes. The cantons themselves are not " divisions " but See also:

• SOVEREIGN

In the course of the lgth See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

Many tunnels have been pierced through the Swiss Alps, such as the St Gotthard (1882), the Albula (1903) and the Simplon (1906). The highest line carried over a Swiss pass is that over the Little Scheidegg (6772 ft.). Industries.—a. Of the Land. If we look at the annual turnover there is no doubt that the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

The best Swiss cheeses are those of the Emmenthal and of the Gruyere, while the two principal condensed See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

Ticino (20 %), Zurich (17 %) and the Valais (10.7 %). Among the best Swiss wines are those of La Cate, Lavaux and Yvorne (all in Vaud), and See also:

• MUSCAT, MUSKAT

The most important See also:

• SLATE (properly CLAY SLATE; in M. Eng. slat or sclat, from O. Fr. esclat, a small piece of wood used as a tile; esclater, to break into pieces, whence modern Fr. eclat, the root being seen also in Ger. schleissen, to split)

After the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

a. Now in Switzerland there are 3164 political communes (municipalites or Einwohnergemeinden). These are composed of all male Swiss citizens over twenty years of age, of See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

The burgher communes (communes bourgeoises or Burgergemeinden), now principally of historical See also:

• INTEREST

Each canton has its own legislature, executive and judiciary. The older cantons have in some cases (Uri, Unterwalden, Appenzell and Glarus) preserved their ancient democratic assemblies (or Landesgemeinden), in which each burgher appears in person, and which usually meet once a year, on the last See also:

• SUNDAY

The Federal parliament meets, at least, once a year, in Bern, the Federal capital. The Federal executive (Bundesrat or conseil federal) was set up in 1848 and is composed of seven members, who are elected for three years by the two houses of the Federal legislature, sitting together as a See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

The success of these attempts led to the adoption by the Swiss people (1898) of new constitutional articles, extending the powers of the Federal authorities to the other departments of civil law and also to criminal law. Drafts carefully prepared by commissions of specialists were slowly considered during nearly two years by the two houses of the Federal parliament, which finally adopted the civil code on the loth of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

A first scheme was rejected by a popular vote in 1897, but a second was more successful in 1905. The " Swiss National Bank " was actually opened on the loth of See also:

• JUNE

52) forbidding the erection of new religious orders or new monasteries or the re-See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

The Christian Catholics (who resemble the Old Catholics in Germany) split off from the Romanists in 1874 on the question of papal See also:

• INFALLIBILITY (Fr. infaillibilite and infallibilite, the latter now obsolete, Med. Lat. infallibilitas, infallibilis, formed from faller, to make a mistake)

The general principles laid down by the Confederation are elaborated into laws by each canton, while the communal councils pass by-laws. Hence there is a great variety in details between canton and canton. The school age varies from 6 to i6 (for younger scholars there are voluntary See also:

• KINDERGARTEN

There are no regular half-holidays. Private schools are permitted, but receive no financial aid from the outside, while the teacher must hold a certificate of efficiency as in the state schools, must adopt the same curriculum, and is subject to the by-laws made by the Schulkommission. On the other hand he is not bound by any See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

The course of studies extends over two to four years, and students are admitted at ages from ten upwards. The curriculum includes the elements of the classical and See also:

• MODERN

27) empowered the Confederation to erect and support, besides the existing Federal Polytechnic School (opened at Zurich in 1855, having been founded by virtue of art. 22 of the Federal Constitution of 1848), a Federal university (this has not yet been done) and other establishments for the higher education (see c. 1 above). This clause would seem to authorize the Confederation to make grants in aid of the cantonal universities, but as yet this has not been done, while the cantons are in no See also:

• HURRY (or URRV), SIR JOHN (d. 165o)

It enjoys a very high reputation and is much frequented by non-Swiss, who in the winter session of 1905–1906 numbered 522 out of the 1325 matriculated students (women are not admitted). In 1905 the cost of the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

An attempt made in 1895 to extend still further the See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

By art. 20 the limits of the jurisdiction of the Confederation and of the cantons are defined. The Confederation has the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

Every Swiss male citizen is bound to render personal military service between the ages of twenty and See also:

• FORTY

The recruits serve for different periods during their first year according to the arm of the service into which they are incorporated—infantry and engineers sixty-five days, artillery and See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

Rifles are manufactured in Bern, ammunition at Thun and at Altdorf, uniforms are macie.in Bern, and the cavalry remount depot is at Thun, which is also the chief artillery centre of Switzerland. There is a department for military science at the Federal Polytechnic School at Zurich, one section being meant for students in general, and the other specially for officers. (W. A. B. C.) HISTORY The Swiss Confederation is made up of twenty-two small states, differing from each other in nearly every point—religious, political, social, industrial, physical and linguistic; yet it forms a nation the patriotism of whose members is universally acknowledged. History alone can supply us with the See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

The legal and political conditions of each were very different. (a) In 853 See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Hence in this district there were privileged tenants, but no free community, and no centre of unity, and this explains why Obwalden and Nidwalden won their way upwards so much more slowly than their neighbours in Uri and Schwyz. Thus the early history and legal position of these three districts was very far from being the same. In Uri the Habsburgs, save for a brief space, had absolutely no rights; while in Schwyz, Obwalden and Nidwalden they were also, as counts of the Zurichgau, the representatives of the king. The Habsburgs had been steadily rising for many years from the position of an unimportant family in the Aargau to that of a powerful See also:

• CLAN (Gaelic clann, O. Ir. cland, connected with Lat. planta, shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p)

Rudolph recognized the privileges of Uri but not those of Schwyz; and, as he now united in. his own person the characters of emperor, count of the ZUrichgau, and landowner in the Forest districts (a name occurring first in the 14th century), such a union of offices might be expected to result in a confusion of rights. On the 16th of April 1291 Rudolph bought from the abbey of Murbach in Alsace (of which he was " See also:

• ADVOCATE (Lat. advocatus, from advocare, to summon, especially in law to call in the aid of a counsel or witness, and so generally to summon to one's assistance)

2. In the struggle for the Empire, which extended over the years following the conclusion of the League of 1291, we find See also:

• MORGARTEN

Despite his promise to restore to the Habsburgs all rights enjoyed by them under his three predecessors (or maintain them in possession), Henry confirmed, on the 3rd of June 1309, to Uri and Schwyz their charters of 1297, and, for some unknown reason, confirmed to Unterwalden all the liberties granted by his predecessor, though as a matter of fact none had been granted. This charter, and the nomination of one royal See also:

• BAILIFF

There they were awaited by the valiant See also:

• BAND

This distinction gives the key to the whole history of the relations between the Confederates and Iabsburgs; the rights of the latter as landowners are fully allowed, and till 1801 they possessed estates within the Con-federation; it is their political rights which were always contested by the Swiss, who desired to rule themselves. As early as 1320 we find the name " Switzerland " (Sweicz) (derived from Schwyz, which had always been the See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

In 1352 the League was enlarged by the admission of Glarus and Zug. Glarus belonged to the monastery of Sackingen on the Rhine (founded by the Irish monk Fridolin), of which the Habsburgs were " See also:

• ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF

After a short See also:

• INTERVAL

By the peace of 1394 Glarus was freed on payment of £200 annually (in 1395 it bought up all the rights of Sackingen); Zug too was released from Austrian rule. Schwyz was given the advocatia of the great abbey of Einsiedeln; Lucerne got the Entlebuch (finally in 1405), Sempach and Rothenburg, Bern and Soleure were confirmed in their conquests. Above all, the Confederation as a whole was relieved from the overlordship of the Habsburgs, to whom, however, all their rights and dues as landed proprietors were expressly reserved; Bern, Zurich and Soleure guaranteeing the maintenance of these rights and dues, with power in case of need to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

The Appenzellers, especially, had offered a stubborn resistance, and the abbot's troops had been beaten back by them in 1403 on the heights of Vogelinseck, and again in 1405 in the great fight on the See also:

• STOSS, VEIT (1438 or 1440-1533)

This is the first case in which the League as a whole took up the position of rulers over districts which, though guaranteed in the enjoyment of their old rights, were nevertheless politically unfree. As an encouragement and a See also:

• REWARD

His death (April 30, 1436) was the See also:

• SIGNAL

These fresh proofs of the valour of the Confederates, and of the growing importance of the League, did not fail to produce Constitution important results. In 1452 the " Confederates of of the the Old League of Upper Germany" (as they styled League, themselves) made their first treaty of alliance with c. 1450. France, a connexion which was destined to exercise so much influence on their history. Round the League there began to gather a new class of allies (known as " Zugewandte Orte," or associated districts), more closely joined to it, or to certain members of it, than by a mere treaty of friendship, yet not being admitted to the rank of a full member of the League. Of these associates three, the abbot (1451) and town of St Gall (1454), and the town of Bienne (See also:

• BIEL, GABRIEL (c. 1425—1495)

Thus the whole line of the Rhine was lost to the Habsburgs, who retained (till 18oi) in the territories of the Confederates the Frickthal only. The Thurgovian bailiwicks were governed in common as " subject " lands by all the Confederates except Bern, The touchiness of the now rapidly advancing League was shown by the eagerness with which in 1468 its members took up arms against certain small feudal nobles who were carrying on a harassing See also:

• GUERRILLA (erroneously written " guerilla," being the diminutive of the Span. guerra, war)

Charles committed the mortgaged lands to Peter von See also:

• HAGENBACH, KARL RUDOLF (1801-1874)

They now looked upon Louis, who, thoroughly aware of Charles's ambition, and fearing that his disappointment at Treves would soon lead to open war, aimed at a master stroke—no less than the reconciliation of Sigismund and the Swiss. This on the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

Thus Uri first gained a permanent footing south of the Alps, not long before Bern won its first conquests from Savoy. The war in the west was begun by Bern and her allies (Fribourg, Soleure, &c.) by marauding expeditions across the Jura, in which Hericourt (November 1474) and Blamont (August 1475) were taken, both towns being held of Charles by the " sires " de Neuchatel, a cadet line of the counts of See also:

• MONTBELIARD

An advance body of Bernese, Fribourgers and Schwyzers, in order to avoid the castle of Vauxmarcus (seized by Charles), on the shore of the Lake of Neuchatel, and on the direct road from Neuchatel to Grandson, climbed over a wooded spur to the north, and attacked (March 2) the Burgundian outposts. Charles drew back his force in order to bring down the Swiss to the more level ground where his cavalry could act, but his rear misinterpreted the order, and when the main Swiss force appeared over the spur the Burgundian army was seized with a panic and fled in disorder. The Swiss had gained a glorious victory, and regained their conquest of Grandson, besides capturing very See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

Charles tried in vain to raise a third army; Rene recovered Lorraine, and on the 5th of January 1477, under the walls of See also:

• NANCY

The treasure and movables captured in the war were to be equally divided amongst the combatants, but the territories and towns amongst the members of the League. As a practical proof of the reconciliation, on the same day the towns of Fribourg and Soleure were received as full members of the Confederation, united with all the other members, though on less favourable terms than usual, for they were forbidden to make alliances, save with the consent of all or of the greater part of the other members. Both towns had long been allied with Bern, whose influence was greatly increased by their admission. Fribourg, founded in 1178 by Berthold IV. of Zaringen, had onthe extinction of that great dynasty (1218) passed successively by inheritance to Kyburg (1218), by purchase to Austria (1277), and by commendation to Savoy (1452); when Savoy gave up its claims in 1477 Fribourg once more became a free imperial city. She had become allied with Bern as early as 1243, but in the 14th and 15th centuries became Romance-speaking, though from 1483 onwards German gained in strength and was the official language till 1798. Soleure (or Solothurn) had been associated with Bern from 1295, but had in vain sought admission into the League in 1411. Both the new members had done much for Bern in the Burgundian War, and it was for their good service that she now procured them this splendid reward, in hopes perhaps of aid on other important and See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

Now, by the time of the Burgundian War, the Confederation stood in a position analogous to that of a powerful free imperial city. As long as the emperor's nominal rights were not enforced, all went well; but, when Maximilian, in his attempt to reorganize the Empire, erected in 1495 at See also:

• WORMS

No further real attempt, however, was made to enforce the rights of the emperor, and the Confederation became a state allied with the Empire, enjoying practical independence, though not formally freed till 1648. Thus, 208 years after the origin of the Confederation in 1291, it had got rid of all Austrian claims (1394 and 1474), as well as all practical subjection to the emperor. But its further edvance towards the position of an independent state was long checked by religious divisions within, and by the enormous influence of the French king on its foreign relations. With the object of strengthening the northern border of the Confederation, two more full members were admitted in 1501—Basel and Schaffhausen—on the same terms as Fribourg and Soleure. The city of Basel had originally been ruled by its bishop, but early in the 14th century it became a free imperial city; before 1501 it had made no permanent alliance with the Confederation, though it had been in continual relations with it. Schaffhausen had grown up round the Benedictine monastery of All See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

The system of giving pensions, in order to secure the Conquests right of enlisting men within the Confederation, and In Italy. of capitulations, by which the different members supplied troops, was originated by Louis XI. in 1474, and later followed by many other princes. Though a See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

13, 1515), which broke the Swiss power in north Italy, so that in 1516 a peace was made with France—the Valais, the Three Raetian Leagues and both the abbot and town of St Gall being included on the side of the Confederates. Pro-vision was made for the neutrality of either party in case the other became involved in war, and large pensions were promised. This treaty was extended by another in 1521 (to which Zurich, then under See also:

• ZWINGLI, HULDREICH (1484—1531)

Again he had it greatly at See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

Zurich tried to cut off supplies of food from reaching the Romanist members (contrary to the wishes of Zwingli), and, on the death of the abbot of St Gall, disregarding the rights of Lucerne, Schwyz and Glarus, who shared with her since 1451 the office of protectors of the abbey, suppressed the monastery, giving the rule of the land and the people to her own officers. Bern in vain tried to moderate this aggressive policy, and the Romanist members of the League indignantly advanced from Zug towards Zurich. Near Kappel, on the 1 rth of October 1531, the Zurich vanguard under Goldli was (perhaps owing to his treachery) surprised, and despite reinforcements the men of Zurich were beaten, among the slain being Zwingli himself. Another defeat completed the discomfiture of Zurich, and by the second peace of Kappel (November 1 531) the principle of " parity " was recognized, not merely in the case of each member of the League and of the " common bailiwicks," but in the latter Romanist minorities in every parish were to have a right to celebrate their own worship. Thus everywhere the rights of a minority were protected from the encroachments of the majority. The " Christliches Burgrecht " was abolished, and Zurich was condemned to pay heavy damages. See also:

• BULLINGER, HEINRICH (1504-1575)

The religious changes introduced by Farel greatly displeased Fribourg, which abandoned the alliance (1534), and in 1535 the Reformation was firmly planted in the city. The duke of Savoy, however, took up arms against Bern (1G36), who overran See also:

• GEX

In 1558 Geneva renewed her alliance with Bern, and in 1584 she made one with'Zurich. The duke of Savoy made several vain attempts to get hold of Geneva, the last (in 1602) being known as the " escalade." The decrees of the Council of Trent had been accepted fully by the Romanist members of the League, so far as relates to See also:

• DOGMA (Gr. Sbypa, from b6aeiv, to seem; literally " that which seems, sc. good or true or useful " to any one)

But the troubles in Raetia threatened entanglements. Austria wished to secure the Miinsterthal (belonging to the League of the Ten Jurisdictions), and See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

In 1668, in consequence of Louis XIV.'s temporary occupation of the Franche Comte, an old scheme for settling the number of men to be sent by each member of the Confederation to the See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

In 1656 a question as to certain religious refugees, who were driven from Schwyz and took See also:

• REFUGE

The harsh character of Bernese rule (and the same holds good with reference to Uri and the Val Leventina) was shown in the great strictness with which its subject land Vaud was kept in hand: it was ruled as a conquered land by a benevolent See also:

• DESPOT (Gr. Sc-va6rgs, lord or master; the origin of the first part of the Gr. word is unknown, the second part is cognate with rbvcs, husband, Lat. potens, powerful)

J. See also:

• BODMER, JOHANN JAKOB (1698-1783)

The Helvetian See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")