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SUNSHINE
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SUNSHINE . As a meteorological See also:element sunshine requires
some conventional See also:definition. There is uninterrupted continuance of gradation from the burning sunshine of a tropical See also:noon to the See also:pale luminosity that throws no See also:shadow, but just identifies
the position and shape of the See also:sun through ,the thin See also:cloud of See also:northern skies.
The See also: Stokes. The excursions of the sun to the See also:north and See also:south of the See also:equator are limited by the tropical circles, and the See also:solar record on the hemispherical bowl will be confined within a See also:belt 230 27' north and south of the See also:plane through the centre parallel to the equator or perpendicular to the polar See also:axis. Thus a belt 46° 54' in angular width will be suitable for a sunshine recorder for any See also:part of the See also:world. Whatever See also:place be chosen for,the observation the same belt will do if it is set up perpendicular to the See also:earth's polar axis. But there can be no record if the sun is below the See also:horizon; hence any part of the belt projecting above the horizon is not only useless for recording but is liable to shadow a part of the belt where there might be a record. Hence to meet the requirements of a particular locality the belt as set up See also:round the polar axis should be cut in two by a See also:horizontal plane through the centre and the half projecting above the horizontal removed. Reversed it makes a half belt, exactly similar to what is See also:left, and thus each See also:complete belt is cut by a horizontal plane through the centre into two frames suitable for sunshine recorders for the particular locality. The cutting of the belt may, of course, vary between the See also:direct transverse cut along the polar axis which gives a half-See also:ring belt to be set See also:vertical in See also:order to receive the record for a point on the equator, and the cut perpendicular to the polar axis which These claims to See also:early origin are See also:mere fables, like the claim of the Oweisi order to See also:spring from Oweis, one of the See also:oldest traditionalists, and so forth. 2 For the See also:dervish orders see DERVISH.divides the belt into two similar rings suitable for recording the sunshine at the poles. Clearly, when the belt is so cut that two complete rings are formed, a continuous record of sunshine throughout the twenty-four See also:hours may be expected, so that for the polar circles the cut will run diagonally between opposite points of the extreme circles of the sun's records. As examples of the cutting of the belt for different Iatitudes we may put See also:side by side the recorder as used in temperate latitudes (fig. i) and the See also:special form designed in the Meteorological See also:Office, See also:London, for use on the See also:National See also:Antarctic Expedition, 1901–1904 (fig. 2). A belt cut for a particular See also:latitude is serviceable for some to° Antarctic Sunshine Recorder, to carry 24-See also:hour record. Flu. 2.–Antarctic Sunshine Recorder, to carry 12-hour record. on either side of that latitude if the cards are not trimmed too closely to the cutting of the belt. The belt must always be adjusted round the parallel to the polar axis. If the cut of the belt is too oblique for the latitude of the place where it is exposed, and t he cards are cut strictly to the belt, the northern side of the cut will be below the horizon and the See also:southern side above it, S Q C Qr i 'o~ ( . '' c :nee ti -r - SUNSHINE 107 regard to the equinoctial card. The See also:section of the supporting See also:surface by a plane through the polar axis is to be as in fig. 3. The Sphere.—The material for the sphere must be ' See also:crown " glass, colourless, or. of a very pale yellow tint. The See also:diameter 4 in. The See also:weight between 2'92 and ,.02 lb. The See also:focal length from the centre of the sphere to the gcom trice,l See also:focus for parallel rays should be between 2.96 in and2.99 Measurement of the Su nshine Record - See also:hit was mentioned that the Campbell Stolf;es recorder involves a conventional definition of,sunshine. The recorded day? of sunshine js less than the actual See also:time during which the sun is above thehorizon by about twenty minutes at sunrise and sunset on accountsof the want of burning See also:power of a very Iaw sun. Some 'further See also:convention is necessary in order-to Obtain a tabulation of the records which will serve as. the basis of a comparison of results for climatological purposes. The spot which is scorched on the card by the sun is not quite limited to the See also:image of the sun, and a few seconds of really strong sunshine will produce a circular' See also:burn which is hardly distinguishable in See also:size from that of, a See also:minute's record. (See fig. 4.) Consequently with intermittent sunshine exaggeration of,the actual duration of burning is very probable. Strictly speaking measurements ought to be between the diameters of the circular ends of the See also:burns, but the practice of measuring all the trace that can be distinctly recognized as scorched has become almost universal in See also:Great See also:Britain, and appears tpgiye a working asis o comparisons. (From the Observer's Handbook, by permission of the Controller of H.M. See also:Stationery Office. ) of different shape for different times of the year. The equinoctial card forms a portion of a See also:cylinder round the polar axis for spring and autumn, the summer card and the See also:winter card each forms a part of a See also:cone making a vertical See also:angle of 16° with the polar as as indicated in fig. 3. Adjustments.—The adjustments of the instrument are to set the belt so that its axis is parallel to the polar axis and symmetrically adjusted with reference to the See also:meridian of the place, and to set the b f sphere so that its centre See also:coin- cides precisely with the centre the belt. No of three thadjustments is easy t to make or to test because neither the centre of the sphere nor 5` 4` 3Q ~O" g the centre (nor indeed the 5 4 3 O • O • ,~ 7 axis) of the belt can be easily \2` 6 _ O d 4 6 Sa identified. For an instrument ~~ f 4 for testing these adjustments ~` OZ"P • 2~ see Quart. See also:Amen See also:Roy. Met. f- See also:Soc. xxxii. 249. See also:Instruments differ See also:accord- See also:ing to the means provided for mounting or adjusting the FIG. 4.—Records obtained by exposing a Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorder for measured positions of the belt or sphere, intervals varying from one second to See also:thirty minutes. The duration of the exposure of the See also:separate " and in that known as the burns increases from right to left of the See also:diagram. Whipple Casella instrument the fixed belt is replaced by a movable card holder. The See also:chief See also:advantage of Stokes's See also:specification is the simplicity of the use of the instrument when once it has been properly adjusted and fixed. It is essential that the glass sphere s and refractive See also:index to give an image of the sun on the prepared card or within the loth of an-See also:inch of it nearer the centre. It is also essential that the cards used should not only be of suitable material but also of the right dimensions for the bowl. The See also:colour and material of the cards were selected by Stokes in consultation with See also:Warren See also:lie la See also:Rue, who was at that time his See also:col-See also:league on the Meteorological See also:Council, and the cards used by the meteorological office are still supplied by Messrs De la Rue & Co. Accuracy in the See also:comparative measurements of sun-shine by this method depends upon the proper See also:adjustment of the dimensions of the different constituent parts of the recorder and accordingly the following specification of See also:standard dimensions has been adopted by the meteorological office. The Time See also:Scale.—On the time scale of the equinoctial card twelve hours are represented by 9.00 in. The Bowl.—The diameter of the bowl, measured between the centres of the 6 o'See also:clock marks on a metal equi- noctial card of thickness 0.02 in. when FIG. 5.--Sunshine Record (See also:June 19 and 20, 1908). in its place, is to he 5.93 in. ( o.o' in.). The distance between the cylinder about a See also:line parallel to the polar axis. The effect thereby exposure edges of the upper winter flange and the See also:lower summer recorded is a photochemical one, and the composite See also:character of the flange must not be less than 2.45 in., nor exceed 2.50 in. The sun's See also:radiation, modified by the elective absorption of the See also:atmosphere distances from the See also:middle line on the equinoctial card to the makes the relation of the record to that of the sun's scorching power middle lines on the summer and winter cards are to be 0.70 in. dependent upon atmospheric conditions and therefore on different (' 0.02 in.). The inclination of the summer card, in place, to the I occasions, so that the two records give different aspects of the solar winter card, in place, is to be 32° I°, symmetrically arranged with See also:influence. Other recorders use the thermal or photographic effect Other Types of Sunshine Recorder.—There are, however, various other conventions as to sunshine which are used as the basis of recorders of quite different types. The See also:Jordan recorder usesferro- See also:cyanide See also:paper and the.sun keeps-the time of its own record h ythe Could be of the proper size I' See also:traverse of a spot of See also:light over the sensitive paper, arranged as I'I t 10 II Noon f 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 fl' See also:Mid. f 2 st. C o. :o ASK" See also:dale' •40 N 0-= .00 56 •SO 'o' See also:WOMEN 46 •4o~Q3~ °o ® 04 Keeldl41 •4R •4R •43 '" See also:IM ~® 00 BENI i o8 SUNSHINE of the sun's rays and record duration by a clock instead of allowing exclusively See also:local, and indeed the possible duration of sunshine at the sun to keep its own time. In the Marvin sunshine recorders of any station is a local characteristic which it is desirable to know. Forenoon,fa.m.) Noon Afternoon,(p.m.) Consequently as See also:evidence of the peculiarity of e 10 12 2 4 g g the site the recorded sunshine might be referred to the See also:total possible with a See also:free horizon. On the other See also:hand, taking the record of sunshine as an indication of the clearness of the See also:sky for the purposes of See also:general See also:meteorology, the screening of the sun by hills must be regarded simply as limiting the time during which observation is possible and the duration of the sunshine recorded should be referred to the possible duration at the particular site. It would, therefore, be desirable in See also:publishing records of the duration of sunshine recorded to See also:note also the possible amount for the instrument as exposed (see Hourly Means at Five Observatories under the Meteorological Council, 1891, No. 113, p. io). The table shows the number of hours the sun is above the horizon during each See also:month in the latitude of the British Isles. By way of exhibiting the results obtained from sunshine records we reproduce (fig. 7) the sunshine See also:map of the British Isles taken from the See also:annual See also:summary of the Monthly " See also:Weather See also:Report," 1908 (British Meteorological Year-See also:Book, pt. ii.). Corresponding maps embodying data
See also:November
from over 130 stations are prepared each month; fig. 8 shows the variation in the See also:distribution of sunshine that may take place in different months. Further, fig. 9 represents the See also:average weekly distribution of sunshine in different sections of the British Isles according to the average of
the See also:United States weather See also:bureau an See also:electrical contact is made by twenty-five years.
11e.n4
See also:January See also:February See also: 50° 262 278 288 365 410 473 482 485 442 373 327 266 246 51° 257 276 286 365 411 477 487 489 444 373 .325 262 241 52° 251 273 284 365 412 481 491 494 446 374 324 258 236 53° 247 271 281 364 414 486 498 499 450 375 323 254 231 54° 243 268 279 363 417 490 503 505 453 375 322 251 225 55° 237 265 276 363 418 494 510 511 456 376 319 245 218 56° 232 263 273 362 420 499 516 516 459 376 316 239 211 570 226 260 270 362 423 504 524 523 463 377 314 236 205 58° 219 257 267 361 426 510 532 530 467 378 312 232 197 59° 211 253 263 361 429 517 541 538 471 379 309 225 187 Sunshine in the Antarctic Regions.—It is clear that so far as concerns the See also:zone from 5o° to 6o° N. in this particular region, the annual amount of sunshine diminishes as one goes northward. It would, however, not be safe to conclude that this diminution in the aggregate duration of sunshine during the year goes on without interruption as one proceeds northward. At least the corresponding statement would not be true of the southern hemisphere. No doubt Isohels are shown for 1000.1300.1600 and 1900 hrs. The unit for the values at stations is one thousand hours is the thermal effect of the sun and the duration of the contact is recorded. An instrument which gives a corresponding result is described by W. H. Dines (Quart. Alan. Roy. Met. Soc. See also:xxvi. 243). These define sunshine by the effect necessary to produce or maintain a certain thermal effect, but the definition once accepted there is no uncertainty as to the record. The Callendar sunshine recorder' gives a record of the difference of temperature of two wires, one solarized and the other not, and it is therefore a continuous record of the thermal effect of solar and terrestrial radiation. It is vastly more detailed than that of other instruments (see fig. 5), but the See also:interpretation of the record in terms suitable for meteorological or climatological purposes is a special study, which has not yet been attempted. In a somewhat similar way See also:information about the duration and intensity of sunshine with an abundance of detail can be obtained from the record upon photographic paper passing under an See also:aperture in a See also:drum which revolves with the sun, as in the See also:Lander recorder, but the study of such details has not been begun. Sunshine Records for the British Isles.—The See also:interest in the use of sunshine recorders is more widely extended in the British Isles than elsewhere, and it is, so far as the public are concerned, the most important meteorological element, but it is singular that up to the See also:present a knowledge of the total amount of sunshine recorded during the day, the See also:week, the month or the year is all that is apparently required. Except for the observatories in connexion with the meteorological office and a few others the distribution of sunshine during the day is not taken out, so that we are still some distance from attacking the problems presented by the finer details of solar records. Fig. 6 shows the average duration of bright sunshine, for each hour of the day for each month at See also:Valencia. The expectation of sunshine is greatest at 1 p.m. and 2 p.m. in May, while there is a well-marked secondary maximum in September. Exposure. We now consider what the daily sunshine record for a particular station means. An ideal exposure has an uninterrupted view of those parts of the horizon in which the sun rises or sets; and elsewhere the view of the sun must not be obstructed by the ground, buildings, trees or any other obstacle; but ideal exposures are not always to be obtained. In mountainous districts particularly it may be impossible to find a site in which the sun is not obstructed for an appreciable part of the day. In these circumstances it becomes a question whether the amount of sunshine recorded should be referred to the maximum possible for an uninterrupted horizon or the maximum possible for the particular exposure.
The See also:answer to the question really depends upon the purpose for which the information is wanted. As a climatological See also:factor of the locality the shadow See also:cast by the surrounding hills is of importance, it is part of the difference between the fertility of the southern and northern slopes of See also: Th 1903 equalled that for Scilly, and in December of tha average of 16 hours per day was registered. /soh els are shown for 150,200,250,300 and 350 hrs. May 1909. June 1909. June 1909. Sunshine Results for Other Parts of the World.—Maps showing the average annual distribution of sunshine over See also:Europe and North See also:America are given in See also:Bartholomew's See also:Physical See also:Atlas, vol. iii. Atlas of Meteorology. Over Europe the largest totals, over 2750 hours per annum, are shown over central See also:Spain. In North America, values exceed 3250 hours per annum in the New See also:Mexico region. For other parts of the world the information available is not sufficiently extensive for the construction of charts. Effect upon Sunshine Records of the See also:Smoke of Great Cities.—Much discussion has taken place from time to time as to whether the See also:climate of a locality can be altered by artificial means. Questions have been raised as to the effect of forests upon rainfall, as to the indirect effect of See also:irrigation or the converse See also:process, the obliteration of natural irrigation by blown See also:sand, and as to the possibility of producing, arresting or modifying rainfall by the See also:discharge of See also:explosives. The one question of the See also:kind to which the sunshine recorder gives an absolutely incontrovertible answer is as to the effect of the smoke of great cities in diminishing the sunshine in the immediate 10 I 20 25 30 3`5 40 45 50 3 8 Hours Spring Summer Autumn Winter 40 20 to Extreme North so 50 AL 40 30 20- IO Extreme South 40 30 20 IO - Western Section —~ 40- 30 , - 20 ID to Eastern Section Isles for each week. neighbourhood. This may be illustrated by the figures for sunshine during the winter months off Bunhill See also:Row, E.C., in the middle of London, See also:Westminster, See also:Kew and See also:Cambridge. Monthly Average Duration of Bright Sunshine derived from Observations extending over Twenty Years. Station. November. December. January. February. Bunhill Row 22.8 7.5 14.1 30.6 Westminster 27.7 13.1 18.4 32.8 Kew 50.8 38.1 40.3 54.6 Cambridge 61 •o 40.6 48'9 73.8 This is not a question which comes out merely by taking averages. The answer can be seen directly by comparing the daily cards (see fig. lo, Sunshine Cards for Cambridge, Westminster and Bunhill Row for December 1904). Thus it appears that the direct effect of the local contamination of the London atmosphere results in the /sohe/s are shown for 100,140,180 and 220 hrs. diminution of the recorded sunshine for the whole year by 37 and it is clear that the contamination extends in some degree as far as Kew, where the loss amounts to about to %. There is evidence of various kinds to show that the effect of the smoke cloud of cities .(iflIn1.,nn eW AAnnnn a; -See also:ems -. 4i lI nnlI 1 rf 4 ~ • ennannninnAng+.U. 4.~. nnnn..an~ a , ,a„ nnnsse r•~r . nne~m~~,- {iAaieatetll0-See also:ea- o• See also:Ann See also:AAA a `momm nAgga` Itkv. AAnnnnwical %, ...^..Om .10ftnr=::—.2110 ~-- ~Anr~... ~Ann~nneA a Amminsolv Aii~YPI1fnAA cs fG . 49o'AnniG .` ~A ~• • Annnnl O ~E~ Ann~':tAA~~•G- n i AnnnnAA..~°~ ,~ , ~An~nnn~``~ 4 0;Iftni~ E u' t ,0awanli iA .004'O ri, al II ~Ia~Rnn~i~. II:AA~i^~— N/~A~l:~i~~AAnamon ilk., Annmm~..Tn~See also:wanA ~p,Ann~nAA~+i ,eo 0MIr.Anspi AAAltkil''O.4mrn irwos~~~•~-IN n~R.1A~i'r U 4~f!!AAn ..s..:,...11lnnnGA~'enn o,.. Aannanenn~~~~r-nn..+~~~eeA~F i~Jne~nAAi~~v. A1yra1 nnAAANog;ia Aomo afaAn~inMc'e%v. nnffl e.re4 AFB „A1 ' IHnnnpiuvil ' to. Aw: iiiGar~il ~.; iAAn~IIIIAAIf' %a. 4 jiIIIUIh1*I4 30'.!••ie girl,tr. ~ ' 'InnnnnAo' c•,!lH p wnA%o .-'• 44"rPlimmme Ai-~j'~ eealPi~~~'•„ goiAAnA~nAR1~;,-e~~• d, ekAAQDARAA '. i/I• An—rr,- % nAnn~nnri ll. 4ptFo^.K^ilAA tr,.~NAIt~RrS~:~{Mq~i ,~~nR~AM' 4/k AAIIIionow, anal P .~A gavit~Annaniv k%v, ~+iiYYY~LV ~y ~ ACi11l,~i. raiO.P ~ ui.::93i06~~U can be traced sometimes for great distances, and in special conditions of weather with easterly winds the effect is sometimes remarkably persistent. (W. N. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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