LONDON . 18.2 15.6 See also:

• BIRMINGHAM

With a further view to uniformity it has certain See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

The clear effluent flows into the Thames, and the sludge is taken 5o m. out to See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

(I) King See also:

• EDWARD

Royal See also:

• FREE

- See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

(See also separate articles on boroughs.) See also:

• WATER

This involved impounding the headwaters of the Wye, the Towey and the See also:

• USK
• USK, THOMAS (d. 1388)

The See also:

• EXPENDITURE

The Metropolitan Board of Works, and the commissioners of sewers in the City, began experiments with electric light. At the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

Such are that of the London See also:

• NECROPOLIS

This scheme must allow of the Council selecting at least a See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

The County Council also See also:

• AIDS

Those at St Peter's, Westminster, Public and St See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Its scope and powers were extended by subsequent charters, and in 1900, under the University of London Act 1898, it was reorganized as both a teaching and an examining body. The See also:

• FUNCTION

Law.—The Inns of Court are four—See also:

• MIDDLE

It originally occupied rooms in See also:

• CRANE (in Dutch, Kraan; O. Ger. Kraen; cognate, as also the Lat. grus, and consequently the Fr. grue and Span. grulla, with the Gr. dpavos)
• CRANE, STEPHEN (1870-1900)
• CRANE, WALTER (1845– )
• CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )

Here are collections of pictures and drawings, including the See also:

• RAPHAEL (Hebrew smm, " God heals ")

No gallery in London is exclusively or especially devoted to See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

Besides the Government reference libraries at the British Museum and South Kensington there are other such libraries, of a specialized character, as at the Patent See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

Theatres, music halls, concert halls and other places of entertainment are licensed by the County Council, except that the licence for See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

4721 St James's Park 93 2. Under the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

West Ham Park 77 See also:

• WIMBLEDON

In summer, boating on the lovely reaches of the Thames above the metropolis forms the recreation of thousands. The growth of popularity of the See also:

• CYCLE
• CYCLE (Gr. KUK)^os, a circle)

The See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

In 1904 the Port of London See also:

• BILL

There have been docks at Rotherhithe since the middle of the 17th century. The total area is 176 acres, a large new dock, the See also:

• GREENLAND (Danish, &c., Gronland)

4. The Watermen's and Lightermen's Company.—The licensing authority for watermen and lightermen. Besides these authorities, the London County Council, the Board of Trade, the Admiralty, the Metropolitan and City See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

Commerce.—The following figures may be quoted for purposes of comparison at different periods: Value of Exports of Home Produce (184o), £11,586,037; (1894), £60,232,118; (188o), £52,600,929; (1902–1905 See also:

• AVERAGE

Among these are the See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

West of the City certain streets are essentially connected, with certain trades. The old-established collection of second-hand See also:

• BOOK

This market was in existence before 1411 when it came into the See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

Administration before 1888.—The middle of the 19th century found the whole local administration of London still of a medievalcharacter. Moreover, as See also:

• COMPLETE

Under that act a vestry elected by the ratepayers of the parish was established for each parish in the metropolis outside the City. The vestries so elected for the twenty-two larger parishes were constituted the local authorities. The fifty-six smaller parishes were grouped together in fifteen districts, each under a district board, the members of which were elected by the vestries of the constituent parishes. A central body, styled the Metropolitan Board of mam. Works, having jurisdiction over the whole metropolis politan (including the City) was also established, the members Boara of of which were elected by the Common Council of the works City, the vestries and district boards, and the previously established local board of Woolwich (q.v.). Further the area of the metropolis for local government purposes was for the first time defined, being the same as that adopted in the Commissioners of Sewers Act, which had been taken from the area of the weekly bills of mortality. The Metropolitan Board of Works was also given certain powers of supervision over the vestries and district boards, and superseded the commissioners of sewers as authority for main drainage. By an act of the same session it became the central authority for the administration of the Building Acts, and subsequently had many additional powers and duties conferred upon it. The vestries and district boards became the authorities for local drainage, paving, lighting, repairing and maintaining streets, and for the removal of nuisances, &c. Acts of 1888 and 1899.—An objection to the Metropolitan Board of Works soon became See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

This commission issued an See also:

• INTERIM

See also:

• SUMMARY

Its scope may be briefly indicated as including (a) duties exercised elsewhere by the Borough Councils, and by the London County Council (although that body is by no means powerless within the City boundaries) ; and (b) peculiar duties such as control of markets and police. The election of common councilmen, whose institution dates from the reign of Edward I., takes place annually, the See also:

• ELECTORS (Ger. Kurfursten, from Kilren, O.H.G. kiosan, choose, elect, and Furst, prince)

The boundaries of these divisions do not in any way correspond with each other, or with the police divisions, or with the borough or parish boundaries. The registration county of London coincides with the administrative county. Parliamentary See also:

• REPRESENTATION

(7) Hammersmith. (8) Hampstead. (9) Islington—Divs.: Northern, Southern, Eastern, Western. (to) Kensington—Divs.: Northern, Southern; (II) City of London. (12) Marylebone—Divs.: Eastern, Western. (13) Paddington (extending into Middlesex)—Divs.: Northern, Southern. (14) St George's Hanover Square. (15) St Pancras—Divs.: Northern, Southern, Eastern, Western. (16) Shoreditch—Divs.: Hoxton, Haggerston. (17) Strand. (18) Tower Hamlets—Divs.: See also:

• BOW (pronounced " bo ")

A detached portion of the parliamentary division of Hornsey, Middlesex, is in the metropolitan borough of Hackney. London University returns a member. (b) South of the Thames. (1) Battersea and Clapham—Divs.: Battersea, Clapham. (2) Camberwell (extending into Kent)—Divs.: Northern, Peckham, Dulwich. (3) Deptford. (4) Greenwich. (5) Lambeth—Divs.: Northern, Kennington, Brixton, See also:

• NORWOOD

(to) Woolwich. Part of the Wimbledon parliamentary division of Surrey is in the metropolitan borough of Wandsworth. Ecclesiastical Divisions and Denominations.—London north of the Thames is within the Church of England bishopric of London, the See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

The Central Courts. Criminal Court, taking the place of the provincial Assizes, was established by an act of 1834. There are twelve sessions annually, under the Lord Mayor, aldermen and See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

J. R. H.) In addition to the provisions that have been mentioned above (Section VII.), the London Government Act 1899 simplified ad-ministration in two respects. The duties of overseers in London had been performed by most diverse bodies. In some parishes overseers were appointed in the ordinary manner; in others the vestry, by local acts and by orders under the Local Government Act 1894, was appointed to act as, or empowered to appoint, overseers, whilst in Chelsea the guardians acted as overseers. The act of 1899 swept away all these distinctions, and constituted the new borough councils in every case the overseers for every parish within their respective boroughs, except that the town clerk of each borough performs the duties of overseers with respect to the registration of electors.' Again, with regard to rates, there were in all cases three different rates leviable in each parish—the poor rate, the general rate and the sewers rate—whilst in many parishes in addition there was a separate lighting rate. From the sewers rate and lighting rate, land, as opposed to buildings, was entitled to certain exemptions. Under the act of 1899 all these rates are consolidated into a single rate, called the general rate, which is assessed, made, collected and levied as the poor rate,.but the interests of persons previously entitled to exemptions are safeguarded. Further, every See also:

• PRECEPT (Lat. praeceptum, a rule, from praecipere, literally to take beforehand, to give rules, instructions or orders)

There was thus raised in the year 1906–1907 a sum of £15,393,956 (in 1898–1899 the amount was £10,401,441); of this £II,012,424 was for central rates, which was subdivided into 7930,275 for county services and £3,082,149 for local services, leaving a See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

2.5d., and imperial subventions to a rate of Is. 3.4d. Practically the whole amount contributed towards the support of public local expenditure, and a considerable amount of that contributed to public national expenditure is based on the estimated annual value of the immovable property situated within the county of London, which in 1876 was £23,240,070; in 1886 £30,716,719; in 1896 £35,793,672; and in 1909 £44,666,651. The produce of a See also:

• PENNY (Mid. Eng. peni or peny, from O. Eng. form penig, earlier penning and pending; the word appears in Ger. Pfennig and Du. penning; it has been connected with Du. pand, Ger. Pfand, and Eng. " pawn,". the word meaning a little pledge or token, or with G
• PENNY, GIANFRANCESCO (1488–1528)

Services Main drainage. • . £295,650 Fire brigade . 263,575 Parks and open spaces . 140,715 See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

Parliamentary expenses Miscellaneous . £1,025,175 .4,837,442 . 14,805 I2,100 5,889,522 22,675 6,214 Total expenditure Balances . . Estimated Income.10,829,684 652,923 Balances . . £4,055 Receipts £173443 Working class dwellings Tramways 2,089,955 Small Holdings and Allotments 410 Parks boating . 5,100 2,268,908 Transfers . . -16,214 £2,279,177 £11,482,607 Estimated Expenditure. Working expenses Working class dwellings. . £56,060 Tramways 1,318,620 Small Holdings and Allotments 621 Parks boating 2,965 £1,378,266 Renewals 163,828 Reserve 44,557 Interest on and repayment of debts 685,946 See also:

• TRANSFER (from Lat. transferre, to bear across, carry over)

These lists when revised are sent to the clerk of the County Council, who publishes the totals. By the Metropolitan Poor Act 1867, the metropolitan common poor fund, to which each union in London contributes in proportion to its rateable value, was established. Out of this fund certain expenses of guardians in connexion with the maintenance of indoor paupers and lunatics, the salaries of officers, the maintenance of children in poor-law schools, valuation, See also:

• VACCINATION (from Lat. vacca, a cow)

The London County Council levied in 1909–1910 to meet its estimated expenditure for the year a total rate of 36•75d.; 14.50d. of this was for general county purposes, 19•75d. for education purposes and 2.5od. for special county purposes. The preceding tables show the estimated income and expenditure of the London County Council for 1909-1910. Besides the annual expenditure of the various authorities large sums have been borrowed to defray the cost of works of a permanent nature. The debt of London, like that of other municipalities, has considerably increased and shows a tendency to go on increasing, although certain safeguards against too ready borrowing have been imposed. Every local authority has to obtain the See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

Loans outstanding 31St March 1908. London County Council (excluding loans advanced to other authorities) £49,938,131 Metropolitan Asylums Board 3,113,612 Metropolitan Police (London's proportion). 226,131 Metropolitan Water Board (proportion) 38,726,514 ~ Central (Unemployed) Body . 31,845 City of London Corporation . 5,553,173 Metropolitan Borough Councils . 12,551,204 Guardians and sick See also:

• ASYLUM (from Gr. b.-, privative, arid earl, right'of seizure)
• ASYLUM, RIGHT OF (Fr. droit d'asile; Ger. Asylrecht)

43–409) there was ample time for cities to grow up from small beginnings, to overflow their See also:

• BORDERS, THE

The northern wall was placed by See also:

• ROACH (Leuciscus rulilus)

I.) IX. HISTORY 1. British and Roman to A.D. 499.—There is practically no record of British London, and considerable difference of opinion exists among antiquaries as to its very existence. Bishop See also:

• STILLINGFLEET, EDWARD (1635—1699)

It is difficult even to guess when the third wall was erected. The See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

In some places where the Roman wall is not to be seen there still exist pieces of the old wall that stand upon Roman foundations. In See also:

• AMEN

except perhaps in a few instances. Many ineffectual attempts have been made to connect the Watling street in the city with the great Roman road so named in medieval times. The name of the small street is evidently a corruption, and in the valuable Report of the See also:

• MSS

Stukeley's industrious researches into the history of Roman London cannot be said to have any particular value, although at one time they enjoyed considerable See also:

• VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- )

If we take from the Itinerary the last station before Londinium in all the routes we shall be able to obtain some See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

London and Middlesex Arch. See also:

• SOC

20), states that there was a bridge over the Thames at the time of the invasion of Claudius (A.D. 43), but he places it a little above the mouth of the river (" higher up "). The position is vague, but the mouth of the Thames in these early times may be considered as not far from the present position of London Bridge. Sir George See also:

• AIRY, SIR GEORGE BIDDELL (1801-1892)

Remains of Roman villas are found in Southwark, which was evidently a portion of Londinium, and it therefore hardly seems likely that a bridge-building people such as the Romans would remain contented with a ferry. Roach Smith is a strong See also:

• ADVOCATE (Lat. advocatus, from advocare, to summon, especially in law to call in the aid of a counsel or witness, and so generally to summon to one's assistance)

449 or 450 the invaders settled in Britain, and in 457 Hengist and Aesc fought against the Britons at Crayford, See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

Although the Saxons hated towns and refused to See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

It may therefore be expected to retain evidence of the existence of a Pomoerium and Territorium as at Rome. The Pomoerium marked the unbuilt space around the walls. Gomme refers to an open space outside the western wall of See also:

• DORCHESTER
• DORCHESTER, DUDLEY CARLETON, VISCOUNT (1573-1632)
• DORCHESTER, GUY CARLETON

York was conquered and occupied by the Saxons, and there not only are the results of English settlement clear but all records of Roman government were destroyed. In London the Saxon stood outside the government for centuries, and the See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

See also:

• BEDE, BEDA, or B
• BEDE, CUTHBERT

In 871 the chronicler affirms that See also:

• ALFRED

937) the Danes ceased to trouble the country. Fire, however, was almost as great an enemy to London as the Dane. See also:

• FABYAN, ROBERT (d. 1513)

Canute's ships were then at Greenwich on their way to London, where they soon afterwards arrived. The Danes at once set to work to dig a great ditch by Southwark, and then dragged their ships through to the west side of the bridge. They were able after this to keep the inhabitants from going either in or out of the town. In spite of all this, after fighting obstinately both by land and by water, the Danes had to raise the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

The walled city of London was a distinct See also:

• POLITICAL

The citizens of London were a divided body, and Duke William knowing that he had many The See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

In 1083 the old cathedral of St Paul's was begun on the site of the church which'Ethelbert is said to have founded in 61o. But four years afterwards the chronicler tells us " the holy monastery of St Paul, the episcopal see of London, was burnt, and many other monasteries, and the greatest and fairest part of the whole 1 A valuable article on " The Conqueror's Footprints in Domes-day" was published in the English Historical See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

In 1090 a tremendous See also:

• HURRICANE

This made her influential enemies, who soon afterwards replaced Stephen upon the throne. The Norman era closes with the death of Stephen in 1154. One of the most striking changes in the appearance of Norman London was caused by the rebuilding of old churches and the Earty building of new ones, and also by the foundation of parishes. the great monastic establishments. The early history of the parishes of London is one of great difficulty and complexity. Although some of the parishes must be of great antiquity, we have little See also:

• AUTHENTIC (from Gr. aOO 'rns, one who does a thing himself)

bourhood of London, although the houses of nuns, of which there were many dotted over the suburbs of London, were governed by this rule. In course of time there was a wide-spread See also:

• DESIRE

It was not until two centuries afterwards that the second Cistercian house in the immediate neighbourhood of London was founded. This was the Abbey of St Mary See also:

• GRACES, THE, (Gr. X&panes, Lat. Gratiae)

In 1176 the stephen'a rebuilding of London Bridge with stone was begun by descrip-Peter of Colechurch. This was the bridge which was tion of pulled down early in the 19th century. It consisted of London. twenty stone See also:

• ARCHES, COURT OF

These houses were specially liable to be destroyed by fire, and in order to save the city from this imminent danger the famous See also:

• ASSIZE

In future, in order to stop a fire, houses could be pulled down in case of need with an alderman's See also:

• HOOK, JAMES CLARKE (1819-1907)
• HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841)
• HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875)

A still more important change in the configuration of the interior of London was made in the 13th century, when the various orders of the friars established themselves there. The Benedictine monks preferred secluded sites; the See also:

• AUGUSTINIANS

The royal processions arranged in connexion with coronations were of great antiquity, pageants. but one of the earliest to be described is that of Henry Dr Jessopp gives a vivid picture of what occurred when King Edward III. entered London in See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

When Richard, duke of See also:

• GLOUCESTER
• GLOUCESTER (abbreviated as pronounced Glo'ster)
• GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE, EARL OF (1243-1295)
• GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE, EARL OF (1222-1262)
• GLOUCESTER, ROBERT, EARL OF (d. 1147)
• GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, DUKE

Henry VII. did little to connect his name with the history of London, although the erection of the exquisite specimen of florid See also:

• GOTHIC

When on the See also:

• EVE

This he restored, and then proceeded towards London. In consequence of the breakdown of some of his guns he imprudently halted at Turnham Green. Had he not done so it is probable that he might have obtained possession of the city. He planted his ordnance on Hay Hill, and then marched by St James's Palace to Charing Cross. Here he was attacked by Sir John See also:

• GAGE
• GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON (1836– )
• GAGE, THOMAS (1721–1787)

This dread of pestilence, united with a puritanic hatred of plays, made the citizens do all they could to discountenance theatrical entertainments. The queen acknowledged the validity of the first reason, but she repudiated the religious objection provided ordinary care was taken to allow " such plays only as were fitted to yield honest recreation and no example of evil." On April 11, 1582, the lords of the council wrote to the lord mayor to the effect that, as "her See also:

• MAJESTY (Fr. majeste; Lat. majestas, grandeur, greatness, from the base mag-, as in magnus, great, major, greater, &c.)

On Norden's map,' however, we find the gardens of 'Paris Garden, the bearhouse and the playhouse. The settled character of the later years of Elizabeth's reign appears to have caused a considerable change in the habits of the people. Many of the chief citizens followed the example of the courtiers, and built for themselves country residences in Middlesex, Essex and Surrey; thus we learn from Norden that Alderman See also:

• ROE (or Row), SIR THOMAS (c. 1581—1644)
• ROE, EDWARD PAYSON (1838-1888)

The early years of Stuart London may be said to be closely linked with the last years of Elizabethan London, for the greatest men, such as See also:

• RALEIGH
• RALEIGH, SIR WALTER (c. 1552-1618)

Ben Jonson places one of the scenes of Every Man in his See also:

• HUMOUR (Latin humor)