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god of the royal city, was again prominent. It was not, however, until the rulers of the XVIIIth dynasty carried their victorious arms beyond the See also:

EGYPTIAN

Egyptian frontiers in every direction that Ammon began to assume the proportions of a universal god for the Egyptians, eclipsing all their other deities and asserting his See also:

POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power over the gods of all See also:

FOREIGN

foreign lands. To Ammon the Pharaohs attributed all their successful enter-prises, and on his temples they lavished their See also:

WEALTH

wealth and captured spoil. Ammon is figured of human See also:

FORM (Lat. forma)

form, wearing on his See also:

head a See also:

PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain deep circlet' from which rise two straight parallel plumes, perhaps representing the tail feathers of a See also:

HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, haf-, to hold, cf. Lat. accipiter, from capere)

hawk. Two See also:

main types are seen: in the one he is seated on a See also:

THRONE

throne, in the other he isstanding, ithyphallic, holding a See also:

SCOURGE (Ital. scoriada, from Lat. excoriare, to flay, corium, skin)

scourge, precisely like See also:

Min, the god of See also:

COPTOS (Egyptian Keft, Kebto)

Coptos andChemmis (See also:

AKHMIM

Akhmim). The latter may be his See also:

ORIGINAL

original form, as a god of fertility, before whom the king ceremoniously breaks up the ground' for See also:

SOWING (from "to sow," O. Eng. shwan, cf. Du. zaaijen, Ger. saen, &c.; the root is seen in Lat. severe, cf. "seed")

sowing or cuts the ripe See also:

corn.

His See also:

CONSORT (Lat. consors, a companion)

consort was sometimes called Amaune (feminine of Amun), but more usually See also:

MAT (O. Eng. meatt, from late Lat. mattes, whence Ital. mallet, Ger. and Dan. matte, Du. mat, &c.)

Mat, "See also:

MOTHER

mother ": she was human-headed, wearing the See also:

double See also:

CROWN

crown of Upper and See also:

LOWER

Lower See also:

EGYPT

Egypt, and their son was Ihons (Chon or See also:

CHONS

Chons), a lunar god, represented as a youth wearing the See also:

CRESCENT (Lat. crescens, growing)

crescent and disk of the See also:

moon. 'A See also:

GREAT

great See also:

temple waS built to Milt at See also:

KARNAK

Karnak not later than the XVIIIth dynasty, and another to Khons not later than the XXth dynasty. The name of Re, the See also:

sun-god, was generally joined to Ammon, especially in his See also:

TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title as " king of the gods ": the See also:

RULE

rule of See also:

HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven belonged to the sun-god in the Egyptian cosmos, and this See also:

IDENTIFICATION (Lat. idem, the same)

identification with Re was only logical for a supreme deity. Ammon was entitled " See also:

lord of the thrones of the two lands," or, more proudly still, " king of the gods." Such `indeed was his unquestioned position when suddenly he was overthrown and his See also:

WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship proscribed. Not even a henotheist fervently worshipping one of many gods, Amenophis (Amenhotp) IV. of the XVIIIth dynasty became the monotheist Akhenaton; discarding all the gods of Egypt, and especially persecuting Ammon the See also:

arch-god, he devoted himself to the purer and more See also:

SUBLIME (Lat. sublimis, exalted)

sublime worship of Aton, the sun. But he failed to win the permanent See also:

ADHESION (from Lat. adhaerere, to adhere)

adhesion of the See also:

PEOPLE

people to his reform, or to conciliate or entirely crush the enormously powerful priesthood of Ammon. A few years after the reformer's death, the old cults were re-established and the monuments of Aton studiously defaced. See also:

HYMNS

Hymns were then addressed to See also:

AMEN

Amen-re, which are almost'monotheistic in expression. The cult of the supreme god spread throughout Egypt and was carried by the Egyptian conquerors into other lands, See also:

SYRIA

Syria, See also:

ETHIOPIA, or AETHIOPIA (Gr. AlOtoaia)

Ethiopia and See also:

LIBYA

Libya, and was accepted by the natives both in Ethiopia and in the Libyan cases, where See also:

CIVILIZATION

civilization was See also:

low and Egyptian See also:

INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence permanent. After the XXth dynasty the centre of power was removed from See also:

Thebes, and the authority of Ammon began to wane. In the XXlst dynasty the 'secondary See also:

LINE

line of See also:

PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest See also:

KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings of Thebes upheld his dignity to the best of their power, and the XXHnd dynasty favoured Thebes:" but as the See also:

SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty' weakened the See also:

DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division between Upper and Lower Egypt asserted itself, and thereafter Thebes would have rapidly decayed had it not been for the piety of the kings of Ethiopia towards Ammon, whose worship had See also:

long prevailed in their See also:

COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country. Thebes was at first their Egyptian See also:

capital, and they honoured Ammon greatly, although their wealth and culture were not sufficient to effect much.

Ammon (See also:

ZEUS

Zeus) continued to be the great god of Thebes in its decay, and notwithstanding that' a See also:

NOME

nome-capital in the See also:

north of the See also:

DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

Delta and many lesser temliles, from 'El Hibeh in Middle Egypt to See also:

CANOPUS, or CANOBUS

Canopus on the See also:

sea, acknowledged'Ammon as their supreme divinity, he probably in some degree represented the See also:

NATIONAL

national aspirations, of Upper Egypt as opposed to Middle and Lower Egypt: he also 'remained the national god of Ethiopia, where his name was pronounced Amane. The priests' of Anane' at Meroe and Napata, in fact, regulated through his See also:

ORACLE (Lat. oraculum, from ora' to pray; the corresponding Greek word is uavreiov or Xpnuri7pwov)

oracle the whole See also:

government of the country, choosing the king, directing his military expeditions (and even compelling him to commit See also:

SUICIDE (from Lat. sui, of oneself, and cidium, from cued ere, to kill)

suicide, according to Diodorus) until in the aid See also:

CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C. Arkamane (Ergamenes) See also:

broke through the bondage 86o successor, he regained his position. He accompanied this emperor, for whom he expresses enthusiastic admiration, in his See also:

CAMPAIGNS

campaigns against the See also:

Alamanni and the Persians; after his death he took See also:

PART

part in the See also:

RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

retreat of Jovianas far as Antioch, where he was residing when the See also:

CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy of See also:

THEODORUS, FLAVIUS MALLIUS

Theodorus (371) was discovered and cruelly put down: Eventually he settled in See also:

Rome, where, at an advanced age, he wrote (in Latin) a See also:

HISTORY

history of the Roman See also:

EMPIRE

empire from the See also:

ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession of See also:

NERVA, MARCUS COCCEIUS

Nerva to the death of See also:

VALENS

Valens (96-378), thus forming a continuation of the See also:

WORK

work of See also:

Tacitus. This history (Rerum Gestarum Libri XXXI.) was originally in See also:

THIRTY

thirty-one books; of these the first thirteen are lost, the eighteen which remain See also:

COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the See also:

period from 353 to 378. As a whole it'is extremely valuable, being a clear, comprehensive and impartial See also:

account of events by a contemporary of soldierly honesty, See also:

INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

JUDGMENT

judgment and wide See also:

READING

reading. "Ammianus' is an accurate and faithful See also:

GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide, who composed the history of his own times without indulging the prejudices and passions which usually affect the mind of a contemporary" (See also:

Gibbon). AlthoughAmmianus was no doubt a See also:

HEATHEN

heathen, his attitude towards See also:

CHRISTIANITY

Christianity is that of a See also:

man of the See also:

WORLD

world, See also:

FREE

free from prejudices in favour of any form of belief. If anything he himself inclined to neo-See also:

PLATONISM

Platonism. His See also:

style is generally harsh, often pompous and extremely obscure, occasionally even journalistic in See also:

TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone, but the author's foreign origin and his military life and training partially explain this. Further, the work being intended for public recitation, some rhetorical embellishment was necessary, even at the cost of simplicity. It is a striking fact that Ammianus, though a professional soldier, gives excellent pictures of social and economic problems, and in his attitude to the non-Roman peoples of the empire he is far more broad-minded than writers like See also:

LIVY [Thus L1v1us] (59 B.C.—A.D: 17)

Livy and Tacitus; his digressions on the various countries he had visited are peculiarly interesting.

In his description of the empire-the exhaustion produced by excessive See also:

taxation, the See also:

FINANCIAL

financial ruin of the middle classes, the progressive decline in the morale of the army—we find the explanation of its fall before the Goths twenty years after his death. The work was discovered by See also:

POGGIO (1380-1459)

Poggio, who copied the original MS. Editio princeps (bks. 14-26) by Sabinus, 1474; completed by See also:

ACCURSIUS (Ital. AccoRso), FRANCISCUS (1182-1260)

Accursius, 1533; with variorum notes, by See also:

Wagner-Erfurdt, 1808; latest edition of See also:

TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text, Gardthausen, 1874-1875. See also:

ENGLISH

English See also:

TRANSLATIONS

translations by P. See also:

Holland, 1609; See also:

Yonge (See also:

BOHN, HENRY GEORGE (1796-1884)

Bohn's Classical Library), 1862; also Max Budinger, Ammianus Marcellinus and See also:

die'Eigenart seines Geschichtswerkes (1895); F. Liesenberg, Die Sprache See also:

des Ammianus Marcellinus (1888–1890) ; T. R. See also:

Glover, Life and Letters in the See also:

FOURTH

Fourth Century (1901); See also:

ABBE (Serbo-Croatian Rai))

Abbe Gimazane, Ammianus Marcellinus, sa See also:

vie et son ceuvre (See also:

Toulouse, 1889), a work containing a number of very doubtful theories. For a See also:

criticism of his views on Roman society see S. See also:

DILL (Anethum or Peucedanum graveolens)

Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire (See also:

LONDON

London, 1898).

End of Article: AMMIANUS, MARCELLINUS

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