EGYPT , a See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

The See also:

• TOTAL

The general See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

The Mediterranean coast extends from the Gulf of Sollum on the west to Rafa on the east. From the gulf to the beginning of the Delta the coast is rock-See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

The coast has a general N.N.W. and S.S.E. trend, and, See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

The low sandy shore of the Delta, slowly increasing by the annual See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

Although the Nile water is abundantly charged with See also:

• ALLUVIUM

This precedent was twice imitated, first by the See also:

• TURKS

See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

The See also:

• SUEZ

South-west of the Fayum is the Wadi Rayan, a large and deep depression, utilizable in modern schemes for re-creating the Lake of Moeris (q.v.). The Desert Plateaus. —From the southern See also:

• BORDERS, THE

In the western desert, however, those large sand accumu- lations which are usually associated with a desert are met with. They occur as lines of See also:

• DUNES

In the northern part of this desert the dunes lie about N.W.-S.E., but farther south incline more towards the See also:

• MERIDIAN
• MERIDIAN (from the Lat. meridianus, pertaining to the south or mid-day)

The See also:

• APEX

The age of this sandstone has given rise to much dispute. The upper part certainly belongs to the Cretaceous formation; the lower part has been considered to be of See also:

• KARROO

The Nile deposits its mud over the valley before reaching the sea, and consequently the Delta receives little additional material. At See also:

• MEMPHIS

See also:

• ALUM

S. of Kosseir, where milling operations were started in See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

A white See also:

• FOG

From the few observations that exist, it seems that farther south the southern winter winds decrease rapidly, becoming See also:

• WESTERLY

The See also:

• VINE

The vines are trailed on trelliswork, and form agreeable avenues in the gardens of Cairo. The best-known fruits, besides dates and grapes, are See also:

• FIGS

When the camel was first introduced into Egypt is uncertain—it is not pictured on the ancient monuments. Neither is the See also:

• BUFFALO

The See also:

• CROCODILE

The Tetrodon, or See also:

• BALL (in Mid. Eng. bal; the word is probably cognate with " bale," Teutonic in origin, cf. also Lat. falls, and Gr. 7raXXa)
• BALL, JOHN (1585-1640)
• BALL, JOHN (1818-1889)
• BALL, JOHN (d. 1381)
• BALL, SIR ALEXANDER JOHN, BART
• BALL, THOMAS (1819- )

The spurwing is supposed to be the bird mentioned by See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Several birds of gorgeous plumage come north into Egypt in the spring, among others the golden See also:

• ORIOLE (O. Fr. Oriol, Lat. aureolus)

The objection entertained by many natives to entering hospitals or to altering their traditional methods of " cure " renders these diseases much more See also:

• MALIGNANT (Lat. malignus, evil-disposed, from maligenus)

29,354, each built a few miles above the mouth of the branch of the Nile of the same name. In the middle ages, when Alexandria was in decay, these two towns were busy ports; with the revival of Alexandria under Mehemet Ali and the foundation of Port Said (c. 1860), their See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

47,955, r6 m. by See also:

• RAIL

It is also the capital of a mudiria, has a considerable European See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

S. by rail of Suhag, and on the same (the west) side of the river. It isnoted for its pottery. Kena (q.v.), pop. 20,069, is on the east bank of the Nile, 145 m. by rail from Assiut. It is the chief seat of the manufacture of the porous earthenware water-bottles used all over Egypt. Luxor (q.v.), pop. (with See also:

• KARNAK

19,262, is also on the west side of the river, 30 M. farther south. It is chiefly famous for its ancient temple. Assuan (q.v.), pop. 12,618, is at the foot of the First Cataract and 551 M. S. of Cairo by rail. Three miles farther south, at Sheila], the Egyptian railway terminates. Korosko, 118 m. by river above Assuan, is a small place notable as the northern terminus of the caravan route from the Sudan across the Nubian desert. Since the building of the railway—which starts 96 m. higher up, at Wadi Half a—to Khartum, this route is little used, and Korosko has lost what importance it had. Ancient Cities and Monuments.—M any of the modern cities of Egypt are built on the sites of ancient cities, and they generally contain some monuments of the time of the Pharaohs, Greeks or Romans. The sites of other ancient cities now in See also:

• COMPLETE

The pyramids of Giza or Gizeh, on the edge of the desert, 8 m. west of Cairo, are the largest of the many pyramids and other monuments, including the famous See also:

• SPHINX (Gr. Q¢lyyea', to draw tight, squeeze)

Tombs of Mahommedan See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

Railway construction dates from 1852, when the line from Alexandria to Cairo was begun, by order of Abbas I. The state railways, unless otherwise indicated, have a gauge of 4 ft. 81 in. The main See also:

• SYSTEM

From Cairo to Suez via Ismailia is a distance of 16o m. Before the Suez Canal was opened passengers and goods were taken to Suez from Cairo by a railway 84 m. long which ran across the desert. This line, now disused, had itself superseded the " overland route " organized by Lieut. See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

The railway development of Egypt has not been very rapid. In 188o 944 M. of state lines were open; in 1900 the figure was 1393, and in 1905, 1688. For several years before 1904 the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

Above Cairo the Nile is the favourite tourist route, while between Shellal (Assuan) and the Sudan frontier it is the only means of communication. Among the See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

One land-line connects at El-Arish with the line through Syria and Asia Minor to See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

At the time of the French occupation of Egypt in 1798, it was found that the cultivable soil covered 4,429,400 acres, but the quantity actually under cultivation did not exceed 3,520,000 acres, or six-elevenths of the entire surface. Under improved conditions the area of cultivated land, or land in See also:

• PROCESS

Out of 1,153,759 proprietors of land in 19o5, 1,005,705 owned less than 5 feddans. The number of proprietors owning over 50 feddans was 12,475. The acreage held by the first class was 1,264,084, that by the second class, 2,356,602. Over 1,600,000 feddans were held in holdings of from 5 to 50 feddans. The state domains cover over 240,000 feddans, and about 600,000 feddans are owned by foreigners. The policy of the government is to maintain the small proprietors, and to do nothing tending to oust the native in favour of European landowners. The kind of crops cultivated depends largely on whether the land is under perennial, flood or " basin " irrigation. Perennial irrigation is possible where there are canals which can be supplied with water all the year round from the Nile. This condition exists throughout the Delta and Middle Egypt, but only in parts of Upper Egypt. Altogether some 4,000,000 acres are under perennial irrigation. In these regions two and sometimes three crops can be harvested yearly. In places where perennial irrigation is impossible, the land is divided by rectangular dikes into " basins." Into these basins—which vary in area from 600 to 50,000 acres—water is led by shallow canals when the Nile is in flood.

The water is let in about the middle of August and the basins are begun to be emptied about the 1st of October. The land under basin irrigation covers about 1,750,000 acres. In the basins only one See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

The See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

While cotton is grown chiefly in the Delta, the sugar plantations, which cover about 1oo,000 acres, are mainly in Upper Egypt. The canes are planted in March and are cut in the following January or February. Although since 1884 the production of sugar has largely increased, there has not been a corresponding increase in its value, owing to the low See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

Beans and lentils are extensively sown, and form an important article of export. The annual value of the crops is over £3,000.000. Rice is largely grown in the northern part of the Delta, where the soil is very wet. Two kinds are cultivated : Sultani, a summer crop, and Sabaini, a flood crop. Sabaini is a favourite food of the fellahin, while Sultani rice is largely exported. In the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

The See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

In the Niie valley the chief domestic animals are the camel, donkey, See also:

• MULE (Lat. mulus)

Fishing.—The chief fishing-ground is Lake Menzala, where some 4000 persons are engaged in the industry, but fish abound in the Nile also, and are caught in large quantities along the coast of the Delta. The salting and curing of the fish is done chiefly at Mataria, on Lake Menzala, and at Damietta. Dried and salted fish eggs; called batarekh, command a ready market. The average annual value of the fisheries is about £200,000. Canals.—The irrigation canals, which are also navigabl'''e by small craft, are of especial importance in a country where the rainfall is very slight. The Delta is intersected by numerous canals which derive their supply from four main channels. The Rayya Behera, known in its lower courses first as the Khatatba and afterwards as the Rosetta canal, follows the west bank of the Rosetta branch of the Nile and has numerous offshoots. The most important is the Mahmudia (50 M. long),which connects Alexandria with the Rosetta branch, taking a similar direction to that of the ancient canal'which it succeeded. This canal supplies Alexandria with fresh water. The Rayya Menufia, or Menuf canal, connects the two branches of the Nile and supplies water to the large number of canals in the central part of the Delta. Following the right (eastern) bank of the Damietta branch is the Rayya Tewfiki, known below Benha as the Mansuria, and below Mansura as the Fareskur, canal. This canal has many branches.

Farther east are other canals, of which the most remarkable occupy in part the beds of the Tanitic and Pelusiac branches. That following the old Tanitic channel is called the canal of Al-Mo'izz, the first Fatimite See also:

• CALIPH, CALIF

The Ibrahimia takes its water from the Nile at Assiut, and runs south to below Beni Suef. It now supplies the Bahr Yusuf, which runs parallel with and west of the Ibrahimia, until it diverges to supply the Fayum—a distance of some 350 M. It leaves the Ibrahimia at Derut near its See also:

• ORIGINAL

See also:

• SOAP

The See also:

• GUM (Fr. gomme, Lat. gommi, Gr. Kµµ1, possibly a Coptic word; distinguish " gum," the fleshy covering of the base of a tooth, in O. Eng. gbma, palate, cf. Ger. Gaumen, roof of the mouth; the ultimate origin is probably the root gha, to open wide, seen in

Large quantities of ready-made clothes and fezes are imported from Austria. Iron and steel goods, machinery, locomotives, &c., come chiefly from England, See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

For the quinquennial period 1901–1905, the average annual value of the exterior trade was: imports £17,787,296; exports £18,811,588; total £36,598,884. In 1907 the total value of the merchandise imported and exported, exclusive of transit, re-exportation and specie, was £E.54,134,000—constituting a See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

They are vessels of small tonnage. The transit trade with the East, which formerly passed overland through Egypt, has been diverted to the Suez Canal, the traff.c through which has little to do with the trade or shipping of Egypt. The number of ships using the canal increased in the 20 years 188o–1900 from 2000 to 4000, while in the same period the tonnage rose from 4,300,000 to 14,000,000. In 1905 the figures were : Number of ships that passed through the canal, 4116 (2484 being British and 600 German), net tonnage 13,134,105 (8,356,940 British and 2,113,484 German). Next to British and German the See also:

• NATIONALITY

The one piastre piece is worth a fraction over 22d. The of a piastre is popularly called a See also:

• PARA
• PARA (officially BELEM; sometimes BELEM DO PARA)

The Egyptian pound is practically non-existent, nearly all that were coined having been withdrawn from circulation. Their place has been taken by foreign gold, principally the English sovereign, which circulates at a value of 972 piastres. In practice the system See also:

• WORKS

The See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

It must meet at least once in every two years. For purposes of local government the chief towns constitute governorships (moafzas), the rest of the country being divided into mudirias or provinces. The See also:

• GOVERNORS

Criminal jurisdiction over foreigners is exercised by the consuls of the fifteen powers possessing such right by treaty, according to the law of the country of the offender. These consular courts also See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

The mehkemehs, or courts of the cadis, judge in all matters ofpersonal status, such as See also:

• MARRIAGE

49). The native courts have both native and foreign judges. There are courts of See also:

• SUMMARY

The Christians in the same year numbered 88o,000, or 8% of the population. Of these the Coptic Orthodox See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

The minor orders are See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

In these schools the instruction given before the British occupation was very slight. All pupils were taught to recite portions of the Koran, and a proportion of the scholars learnt to read and write Arabic and a little simple See also:

• ARITHMETIC (Gr. apeOµ7run7, sc. TEXVn, the art of counting, from (ipLBµos, number)

Cairo holds a prominent place as a seat of Moslem learning, and its university, the Azhar, is considered the first of the eastern world. Its professors See also:

• TEACH [THATCH OR THACH], EDWARD (d. 1718)

This See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

. . to Lord See also:

• PALMERSTON
• PALMERSTON, HENRY JOHN TEMPLE, 3RD VISCOUNT (1784-1865)

See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

The reports (Egypt, No. 2, 1901, and Egypt, No. 2, 1904), by Sir See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

See also:

• HARTMANN, KARL ROBERT EDUARD VON (1842–1906)
• HARTMANN, MORITZ (1821–1872)

In 1800 the French estimated the population at no more than 2,460,000; the census of 1846 gave the figures at 4,476,440. From that year to 1882 the average annual increase was 1.25%. If the desert regions be excluded, the population of Egypt is extremely dense, being about 939 per sq. m. This figure may be compared with that of Belgium, the most densely populated country in Europe, 589 per sq. m., and with that of See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

The first of these divisions. includes both the Moslem and Coptic inhabitants. The Bedouins, or the Arabs of the desert, are of two different classes: first, Arabic-speaking tribes who range the deserts as far south as 26° N.; secondly, the tribes inhabiting the desert from Kosseir to See also:

• SUAKIN, or SAWAKIN

The professional and trading classes form about 10% of the whole population, but 50% of the foreigners are engaged in trade. Of the total population the See also:

• MALES

Over all is worn a long See also:

• CLOTH

A See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

Girls, in like manner, marry very young, some at ten years of age, and few remain single beyond the age of sixteen; they are generally very prolific. The bridegroom never sees his future wife before the See also:

• WEDDING

On the last day, which should be that terminating with the See also:

• EVE

Behind come the women relatives and the hired wailers. On the way to the cemetery the corpse is generally carried to some revered mosque. Here the funeral service is performed by the imam, and the See also:

• PRO

The women of an Egyptian household in which old customs are maintained never sit in the presence of the master, but attend him at his meals, and are treated in every respect as inferiors. The See also:

• MOTHER

Ladies ride asses and sit astride. The poorer classes cannot fully observe the harem system, but the women are in general carefully veiled. Some of them keep small shops, and all fetch water, make fuel, and See also:

• COOK
• COOK, ALBERT STANBURROUGH (1853– )
• COOK, EDWARD DUTTON (1829–1883)
• COOK, ELIZA (1818–1889)
• COOK, JAMES (1728-1779)
• COOK, THOMAS (1808-1892)

Humanity to animals is another virtue, and See also:

• CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. crualte, mod. cruaute, from the Lat. crudelitas)

There are many kinds of musical See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

Jugglers, rope-dancers and See also:

• FARCE

For nine days and nights Cairo has more the aspect of a See also:

• FAIR

When the river has risen 20 or 21 ft., he proclaims the Wefa en-Nil, " Completion " or " Abundance of the Nile." On the following day the dam which closed the canal of Cairo was cut with much ceremony. The canal having been filled up in 1897 the ceremony has been much modified, but a brief description of what used to take place may be given. A pillar of earth before the dam is called the " Bride of the Nile," and Arab historians relate that this was substituted, at the Moslem See also:

• CONQUEST

But, besides the See also:

• GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846— )