PORT See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

From this time forward there was a desperate struggle at the See also:

• SAP

At Chi-Kuan, the counterscarp See also:

• GALLERY (through Ital. galleria, from Med. Lat. galeria, of which the origin is unknown)

The siege works had indeed made considerable progress. The ditches of Sung-Shu and Erh-Lung were partially filled. They held most of the ditch of Chi-Kuan Fort and were cutting down the escarp, and two See also:

• PARALLELS

But so urgent was the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

Those of the Russians were about 5000, chiefly from artillery fire. This was the turning-point of the siege. At once the i i-inch howitzers, assisted by telephone from 2o3-Metre, opened upon the Russian See also:

• SHIPS

See also:

• ADMIRAL

, There had been a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

The Russian commander-in-See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

All the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

(Kaulbars), III. (Bilderling) and I. (Linievich); a general reserve was at Mukden. On the other side from left to right, on a line 4o m. long, were Oku (2nd Army), Nozu (4th), Kuroki (1st) and Kawamura (5th), the general reserve in rear of the centre at Yentai and the 3rd Army in rear of Oku. Each side had about 310,000 men See also:

• PRESENT

With a battle-front exceeding two days' See also:

• MARCHES, THE (It. Le Marche)

The battle of Sandepu (Heikoutai), fought in a terrible See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

But Nogi had not yet reached the Mukden-Tieling railway when, on the night of the 9th, every preparation having been made, Kuropatkin's retreat began. On the loth, covered by Kaulbars, who held off Nogi, and by strong rearguards at and east of Mukden, the movement continued, and though it was not executed with entire precision, and the rearguards suffered very heavily, the Russians managed to draw off in safety to the northward. On the evening of the loth, after all their long and hardly contested enveloping marches, Nogi's left and Kawamura's right met north of Mukden. The circle was complete, but there were no Russians in the centre, and a See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

This incident provoked the wildest indignation, and Russia was for some days on the verge of war with See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

Togo's fire was concentrated first on the " Osliabia," the leading Russian battleship, and by 2.25 she was hors de combat. At this time both the battle-fleets were See also:

• RUNNING

The Russians again See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

The first of the three 19th-See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

But coming there into conflict with the fierce Kurds, he gave up further enterprises and, leaving garrisons in the strong places, took his army back into the See also:

• CAUCASUS

Contrary to expectation the Turks had proved victorious. Hostilities had ceased in October 1876, though it was not till 1st March 1897 that peace had been signed. During 1876 the Turks had also quelled an insurrection of the Christiansin See also:

• BULGARIA
• BULGARIA, EASTERN

There would be some delay in the forwarding of supplies, due to the fact that the Rumanian railway was of different See also:

• GAUGE, or GAGE (Med. Lat. gauja, jaugia, Fr. jauge, perhaps connected with Fr. jale, a bowl, galon, gallon)

There were in addition 74 squadrons and 52 guns of See also:

• COSSACKS (Russ. Kazak; plural, Kazaki, from the Turki quzzaq, " adventurer, free-hooter ")

X. . See also:

• CRIMEA (ancient Tauris or Tauric Chersonese, called by the Russians by the Tatar name Krym or Crim)

Works on the art of war did not exist in the Turkish See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

The artillery were armed with a See also:

• KRUPP, ALFRED (1812—1887)

Of the large ironclads on the See also:

• LOWER

Abdul Kerim remained inactive in the fortresses of the Quadrilateral, and even when he heard of the crossing at Sistova, decided that it was but a demonstration. No measures were taken to observe the Russians. They were thus able to complete their crossing practically undisturbed, and this although it was never likely that the Russians would voluntarily select a point of passage leading into the Quadrilateral. Every-thing pointed to a crossing between Nikopol and Rustchuk. The best course for the Turks under existing circumstances would have been to leave garrisons in the fortresses, to observe the river line and to push reconnaissances to the north of the river, and to dispose the field army in a central position, whence it could concentrate on any point as soon as the enemy's intentions were revealed. On June 3oth Lieut.-General Gurko was put in command of -a detachment composed of ro battalions, 31 squadrons and 32 guns, with which he was ordered to advance rapidly to 2nd Tirnova to gain possession of a pass over the Balkans, Period.—to damage railways and telegraphs, and to endeavour tfoerato stir up a Bulgarian revolt. He crossed the Danube tlons in Bulgaria by the Russian bridge on July 3rd and occupied to the Tirnova on July 7th, the Turkish garrison retreating fail of to Osman Bazar. At Tirnova he learned that the Pievaa. Shipka Pass was occupied by 3000 Turks, and that none of the remaining passes were held in any force. He then determined to cross by the Hainkioi Pass and to, turn the Shipka. He started from Tirnova on the 12th July, on which day the head of the VIII. Corps reached the See also:

• TOWN

Hainkioi was occupied on the 14th, a detachment of Soo Turks being driven away. Gurko then sent two squadrons to cut the See also:

• TELEGRAPH (Gr. Tike, far, and rypaq5eiv, to write)

The VIII. Corps had meanwhile advanced on Tirnova, as we have seen. On July 3rd Abdul Kerim received orders from Constantinople to advance against the Russians, and set out with the force from Shumla for Rustchuk, immediately preceded by the cavalry division. Still no attempt was made to gain contact with the Russians and discover their intentions. From Rustchuk, Abdul Kerim advanced towards the Jantra, and after a skirmish between the Turkish cavalry and a Russian cavalry brigade again retired. Realizing Abdul Kerim's incapacity, and rendered anxious by Gurko's successful advance, the authorities at Constantinople now decided to give the command to Mehemet See also:

• ALI

First Osman reached Plevna (q.v.) on July 19th, and at battle of once took up a position which had been previously Plevna. reconnoitred by Atouf Pasha, on the hills to the north-east and east of the town. He had arrived just in time. On July 16th the Russian IX. Corps had taken Nikopol, and on the 18th orders were received to occupy Plevna with one division. At 5 a.m. on July loth General Schilder-Schuldner, with the 5th Division IX. Corps and other forces, attacked Osman's position. No preliminary See also:

• RECONNAISSANCE (from Fr. reconnaitre, to recognize, Lat. recognoscere)

After the battle of the loth he had been reinforced by brigades of the IV. and XII. Corps and a cavalry Second division. With this force, 30,000 in all, he attacked battle of on July 3oth. Krudener advanced in two columns, Plevna. cavalry covering both flanks. Skobelev, with the cavalry on the southern flank, was subsequently reinforced by infantry, so there were practically three columns of attack. A general reserve of one brigade was kept at Karagatsch (16 m. east of Plevna). After an artillery engagement which lasted from 8.30 a.m. till 2.30 p.m. the infantry advanced. The fighting lasted till sunset, when the Russians withdrew to Karagatsch, having lost 7300 officers and men. The Turkish casualties were 2000. General Krudener, having reconnoitred the position, had hesitated to attack with the force available, and only acted in obedience to the orders received from head-quarters, then 8o m. distant at Tirnova. His defeat was an unpleasant surprise for the Russians. Their plans were rudely upset, and their attention was now directed solely to the taking of Plevna.

Headquarters were moved from Tirnova back to Bulgareni, Gurko was called back from south of the Balkans, the Rumanian army was called in to co-operate, orders were issued for the See also:

• GUARDS, AND HOUSEHOLD TROOPS

Again Osman failed to pursue. He' was weak in cavalry, but he had sufficient to keep in See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

His force consisted of 15,000 men, including six battalions of Bulgarian See also:

• VOLUNTEERS

The The See also:

• CESAREVICH

But Suleiman was averse to his plan and it was negatived at Constantinople, though if this plan had been carried out with vigour, the position of the Russians should have been See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

Mehemet Ali's advance and the assaults on the Shipka had been repulsed. The Russians could expect no further reinforcements before October, and it was therefore decided to make a third attempt to take Plevna, but first of all to occupy Lovcha. Skobelev had already made an unsuccessful attempt on August 6th, and General Prince Imeretinski, with a force of two infantry Lovcha. divisions and a brigade of Cossacks, in addition to Skobelev's mixed brigade, was now entrusted with the task. The garrison under Rifaat Pasha amounted to 8 battalions, 6 guns and some Circassians. Fighting commencedon Sept. 1st and on the 3rd the Turks were driven out, most of the survivors finding their way to Plevna, and bringing 5 guns with them. The Russians lost 1500, the Turks 2500. On Sept. 2nd, Osman set out with a strong relieving column from Plevna, but on the 4th, See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

Their plan was, after a long artillery bombardment, to attack the eastern front with the Rumanian forces, the south-eastern front with the IV. and IX. Corps and the southern front with Imeretinski's command. The attacks were to be simultaneous. The cavalry divisions were to be kept in rear and close to the flank of the attacking infantry. During the night of Sept. 6th/7th the troops were moved into preparatory position, and batteries were constructed at 3000 to 5000 yds. from the outer works. The artillery bombardment was commenced at 6 a.m. on Sept. 7th and continued till midday Sept. 11th. So far the infantry had only been engaged on the south flank, where Skobelev had succeeded Imeretinski in the command. He had succeeded in advancing to within 2000 yds. of the southern Turkish redoubts and had entrenched himself. The orders for Sept. lrth were for the infantry assaults to be delivered at 3 p.m. after a six hours' cannonade.

A dense See also:

• FOG

It had not caused 200 casualties. The object of the artillery is to cover the advance of the infantry, and the arms must work in See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

24th and again on Oct. 8th, stong reinforce- Plevna. ments arrived, raising the Turkish force under Osman to 84 battalions, 25 squadrons and 96 guns, with an effective of 48,000 men. Plevna had been re-victualled and the sick and wounded had been sent back to Orchanie. General Krilov, who had been operating west of the Vid, with 52 squadrons and 30 See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

The XIV. Corps was in the Dobrudja, the VII. Corps about Odessa and the X. Corps in the Crimea. On the Turkish side Suleiman advanced across the Lom, leaving small garrisons in the fortresses, and attacked at Mechka Turkish on Nov. 19th, and at Mechka and Tristenik on Nov. move- 26th, and again on Dec. 12th, but each time without 'vents. success, and he retired across the Lom. South of the Balkans Vessil Pasha had succeeded Reouf Pasha on the Shipka. He continued to contain the three Russian divisions there, but made no attempt to dislodge them, beyond small offensive demonstrations made with the object of concealing the departure of large drafts which were sent to Sofia. At Sofia and Orkhanie, the Turks were forming an army of recruits and reservists with the object of advancing to the relief of Osman. Mehemet Ali was entrusted with the, command.

Osman had already asked the See also:

• SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

The The Cesarevich was left north of the Balkans with 71,000 men to guard the communications. Gurko's force was raised to 8o,000. Leaving a containing force to oppose the Turks at the Arabi Konak Pass positions, he crossed by the Curiak Pass. The Turks retired unobserved, and after a feeble stand at Tashkosen retreated to Kustendil. Gurko occupied Sofia on See also:

• JAN

Mirski attacked on Jan. 8th and was repulsed. The following day Skobelev and Mirski attacking together were successful, and Vessil Pasha capitulated with his force,"some 36,000, of whom 600o were sick and wounded. Vessil Pasha had pointed out the danger of his position on Jan. 7th, but, contrary to Suleiman's See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

The Russians crossed the Balkans in a wide front of about r8o See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

Mehemet Ali was in command of what remained of the Turkish armies behind the lines. On Jan. 31st an armistice was arranged, and on March 3rd the treaty of See also:

• SAN

The Turks had been defeated owing to the incapacity of their leaders, none of whom had previously commanded an army organized according -to modern ideas. They were ignorant of strategic principles. Then, again, the interference with the generals in the field by the authorities at Constantinople had in each case resulted in the disasters which invariably follow the attempt of civilian amateurs to control warlike operations. On the Russian side, the enemy had been at first despised, and consequently the forces originally employed were inadequate, which meant subsequent delays, losses and expense. The command of the sea had proved of little value to the Turks. Their flotilla rendered them no assistance. In the early stages it could have materially assisted by landing reconnoitring parties N. of the Danube, and by interfering with the Russians when crossing the river. The Russian bridge offered a tempting objective throughout the campaign, but commanders with the requisite dash and initiative were not forthcoming. The defeat of the Turks was due in the first place to the failure of their politicians to ensure the adequate organization and training of the army during peace time, in the second place to the want of a commander who had educated himself to undertake the responsibilities entrusted to him. (J. H. V.

C.). A separate campaign had been waged, as before, in Asia Minor. Here the Turks under Mukhtar Pasha had 57,000 men in two corps, the one on the side of Batoum and Ardahan, the other between See also:

• ERZERUM, or ARZRUM (Arm. Garin)

See also:

• ISMAIL (1830-1895)