See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

But, though the sultan remained stubborn, the emperor Alexander, who since the See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

The Morea was quickly overrun; in April 1826 See also:

• MISSOLONGHI, or MESOLONGHI (MaroMyyeov)

Months passed without any action being taken under the protocol Agreement of the 4th of April; and Russia suspected Great of the Britain of merely using the protocol to prevent her powers as own isolated intervention. The situation was how-to Greece. ever materially altered by the end of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

The armistice, accepted by the Greeks, was refused by Ibrahim, pending instructions from Constantinople, though he consented to keep his See also:

• SHIPS

Meanwhile the other powers had taken See also:

• ADVANTAGE

An account of the collapse of the Turkish power before Mehemet Ali, and of the complicated diplomatic developments that followed, is given in the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

Here it may suffice to say that the See also:

• DESIRE

Thus Sultan Ibrahim was dissuaded from such a step in 1644 only by the refusal of the See also:

• SHEIKH, or SHAIKH

reorganized, military instructors being procured from Europe; the administration was gradually centralized, and See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

See also:

• ROMAN

In 1843 the See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

As all the preparatory schools founded by the state were for Mussulman See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

His ambassador, accordingly, handed in at Constantinople a formal demand for the restitution of the Catholics in all their property and rights. The Ottoman government, seeking to gain time, proposed a " mixed commission "of inquiry; and to this France agreed, on condition that no documents later than 1740 should be admitted as See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

He demanded the recognition of the status quo in the holy places, and of the tsar's right, under the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji, to the See also:

• PROTECTORATE

Lord Aberdeen still hoped to secure peace, and the Russian government was informed that no casus See also:

• BELLI, GIUSEPPE GIOACHINO (1791-1863)

These terms were ultimately embodied in the Treaty of Paris of the 3oth of March 1856. Its provisions, held by some to be so unduly favourable to Russia as to justify the question whether she had not been victorious in the war, were as follows: Russia abandoned all pretensions to exercise a protectorate over the Christians in Turkey, or to an exclusive right of interference in the Danubian principalities, to which See also:

• BESSARABIA

The See also:

• VICEROY (from O. Fr. viceroy, mod. viceroi, i.e. Lat. vice, in place of, and roy or roi, king)

Russia and Turkey thus regained full liberty as regards their naval forces and armaments in the Euxine; the passage of the straits remained interdicted to ships of war. A reform not unworthy of See also:

• NOTICE

But the new sultan was as averse from accepting any of the formulae proposed as were his predecessors: Servia and Montenegro were with great difficulty pacified, but it was See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

An armistice and preliminaries of peace were signed on the 31st of January 1878 at Adrianople, and a definitive treaty was concluded at Treaty of See also:

• SAN

Bosnia and Herzegovina were handed over to the administration of Austria; Montenegro and Greece received accessions of territory to which only strong pressure coupled with a naval demonstration induced Turkey to consent three years later. Peace once restored, some attempt was made by Turkey in the direction of complying with her engagements to institute reform. Financial and military advisers were procured from See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

(See Finance, above.) In 1885 the practically bloodless revolution of See also:

• PHILIPPOPOLIS (Bulgarian, Plovdiv; Turkish, Felibe)

The scheme propounded by the three powers encountered great objections from the Porte, but under pressure was accepted in October 1895. Its acceptance was however the See also:

• SIGNAL

After 1892 the revolts, frequently renewed, of the so-called See also:

• IMAM

A serious Bulgarian insurrection in Macedonia in the autumn of 1903 induced Austria and Russia to combine in formulating the Murzsteg reform See also:

• PROGRAMME, or PROGRAM

The Porte strove by every means at its disposal to thwart their activity; but elsewhere they were regarded as a body of See also:

• ACADEMIC

After the port of Vathy had been bombarded by Ottoman war-ships the revolt was easily crushed. This affair however was of little more than local importance, and the Young Turks were not directly concerned in it. They The struck their first blow on the 22nd of July 1908, Revolution when Niazi Bey and his troops raised the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

Accordingly, at the beginning of October 1908, the emperor See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Kiamil Pasha was forced to resign (Feb. 14, counter. 1909) and was succeeded by Hilmi Pasha, ex-high revolution. commissioner of Macedonia. Strife then arose between the committee and the Liberal Union, a body which mainly represented the Christian electorate, and on the 5th of April See also:

• HASSAN

Nov. 3, 1844) as his successor, with the See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

For the present purpose it will be convenient to divide the old school Old School into three periods, which may be termed respectively the pre-classical, the classical and the post-classical. Of these the first extends from the early days of the empire to the accession of See also:

• SULEIMAN

Ju,ly 1909, however, the Greek flag was hoisted in See also:

• CANEA, or KHANIA

Vandal, Memoires du See also:

• MARQUIS

The mesnevi, the Iasida and the ghazel—all of them, so far at least as the Ottomans are concerned, Persian—were the favourite See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

Of course only a few of the most prominent, either through the See also:

• INTRINSIC (through Fr. intrinsique, from Lat. intrinsecus, inwardly; inter, within, secus, following, from root of sequi, to follow)

In Sinan Pasha (d. 1420), another minister of Mahommed the Conqueror, Ottoman prose found its first exponent of ability; he left a religious See also:

• TREATISE

Fuzuli (d. 1563), one of the four great poets of the old school, seems to have been a native of Bagdad or its neighbourhood, and probably became an Ottoman subject when Suleiman took possession of the old capital of the caliphs. His language, which is very See also:

• PECULIAR

During the reign of Ahmed I. arose the second of the great poets of the old Ottoman school, Nef'i of Erzerum, who owes his pre-See also:

• EMINENCE (Lat. eminentia)

Nedim stands quite alone: he copied no one, and no one has attempted to copy him. There is in his poetry a joyousness and sprightliness which at once distinguish it from the work of any other Turkish author. His ghazels, which are written with great elegance and finish, contain many graceful and original ideas, and the words he makes use of are always chosen with a view to harmony and See also:

• CADENCE (through the Fr. from the Lat. cadentia, from cadere, to fall)

His work, which extends from 1591 (1000) to 1659 (1070), contrasts strongly with that of the earlier historian, being written with great directness and lucidity, combined with much vigour and picturesqueness. Evliya, who died during the reign of Mahommed IV., is noted for the record which he has left of his travels in different countries. About this time Tash-koprizada began and 'Ata-ullah continued a celebrated See also:

• BIOGRAPHY (from the Gr. (3ios, life, and yp&4 , writing)

Ghalib's style is as original as that. of Fuzuli, Post-cal See also:

• NEFF, FELIX (1798-1829)

1878), the See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )