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INDEPENDENT See also:MEXICO] (Dec. 1853), the other by See also:Count Raousset de Boulbon in Sonora (See also:July 1854)—added to the See also:general disorder. The provisional See also:president, General See also:Carrera, proving too Centralist, was replaced by See also:Alvarez (See also:Sept. 24, 1855), two of whose ministers are conspicuous in later See also:history—Ignacio See also:Comonfort, See also:minister of See also:war, and Benito See also:Juarez, minister of See also:finance. Juarez (b. 1806) was of unmixed See also:Indian See also:blood. The son of a Zapotec See also:peasant in a See also:mountain See also:village of See also:Oaxaca, he was employed as a lad by a bookbinder in Oaxaca See also:city, and aided by him to study for the priesthood. He soon turned to the See also:law, though for a See also:time he was teacher of physics in a small See also:local See also:college; eventually went into politics, and did excellent See also:work in 1847 as See also:governor of his native See also:state. Juarez almost immediately secured the enactment of a law (Ley Juarez, Nov. 23, 1855) subjecting the See also:clergy and the See also:army to the See also:jurisdiction of the See also:ordinary courts. " Benefit of clergy " was the curse of Mexico. See also:Officers and soldiers could be tried only by courts-See also:martial, the clergy (including See also:numbers of persons in See also:minor orders, who were practically-laymen) only by ecclesiastical courts. The proposed reform roused the Clericals to resistance. Alvarez gave See also:place (Dec. 8, 1855) to his war minister Comonfort, who represented the less See also:anti-Clerical Liberals. He appointed a See also:commission to consider the question of draining the valley of Mexico, which adopted the See also:plan ultimately carried out in 1890–1900; suppressed a Clerical rising in See also:Puebla (See also: But the apparent hopelessness of any ending to the conflict, together with the frequent outrages of both parties on foreigners, afforded strong reasons for See also:foreign intervention. Early in 1859 President See also:Buchanan had recommended the step to See also:Congress, which did not See also:respond. On the 12th of See also:December 1859 the M`Lean-Juarez treaty was concluded, which gave the United States a sort of disguised See also:protectorate over Mexico, with certain rights of way for railroads over the See also:Isthmus of See also:Tehuantepec and between the Rio Grande and Pacific. The See also:American See also:Senate, however, did not ratify the treaty, and a See also:motion for its reconsideration See also:late in 186o came to nothing, owing to the approach of the War of See also:Secession. When See also:Napoleon III. was in captivity at See also:Ham he dreamed of341 a Central See also:America civilized and opened up to See also:modern enterprise by a transoceanic See also:canal: and the clerical refugees in See also:Paris, among them Labastida, See also:archbishop of Mexico, easily influenced the Empress See also:Eugenie, herself a Spaniard, to See also:interest her See also:husband in the cause of centralized See also:monarchy and the church: it is said that even in 1859 they had thoughts of setting up the See also:Archduke See also:Maximilian as ruler of Mexico. The question of a See also:joint intervention of Great See also:Britain, See also:France, See also:Spain and See also:Prussia was mooted between those See also:powers in i86o. Early in 1859 the outrages on See also:British subjects had Overthrow caused the British minister to break off See also:diplomatic of Miramon, relations. Forced contributions had been levied by 1860. both sides on goods or See also:bullion, being See also:European property, the reactionaries being the worst offenders; and there were numerous cases of See also:murder and See also:robbery of Europeans. At last, on the 17th of See also:November 186o, Miramon, under the plea of See also:necessity, seized $630,000 in specie which had been See also:left under See also:seal at the British See also:Legation and was intended for the bondholders. On the 22nd of December 1860 his forces were routed by the Juarist general Ortega at Arroyozarco, and his See also:government was over-thrown. Juarez entered Mexico City on the nth of See also:January 1861. He soon found that his government was held responsible to See also:Europe for the excesses of its rival as well as its own. Miramon's government had violated the British Legation; the See also:Spanish minister, the papal See also:legate and the representatives of See also:Guatemala and See also:Ecuador were expelled from the See also:country for undue interference on behalf of the reactionaries; the payments of the European British See also:loan were suspended by Juarez's Congress in Interven-July 1861; and various outrages had been committed flop, 1864 on the persons and property of Europeans for which no redress could be obtained. The See also:French See also:charge d'affaires, See also:Dubois de Saligny, who had been sent out in November 186o, urged French intervention, and took up the Jecker claims. Jecker, a Swiss banker settled in Mexico, had See also:lent Miramon's government in 1859 $750,000 (subject, however, to various deductions): in return, Miramon gave him 6 % bonds of the nominal value of $15,000,000 which were ingeniously disguised as a See also:conversion See also:scheme. Jecker had failed early in 186o, Miramon was overthrown a few months later. Jecker's creditors were mostly French, but he still held most of the bonds, and there is See also:reason to believe that he won over Dubois de Saligny by corrupt means to support his claims. Intercepted See also:correspondence (since confirmed from the archives of the Tuileries) showed that the Duc de See also:Morny promised Jecker his patronage in return for 30% of the; profits (De la Gorce, Hist. du Second See also:Empire, IV. c. 1). An imperial See also:decree naturalized Jecker in France, and Napoleon III. took up his claim. A See also:convention between Great Britain, France and Spain for joint interference in Mexico was signed in See also:London on the 31st of October 1861. A See also:separate arrangement of the British claims was negotiated by Juarez, but rejected by the Mexican Congress, November 1861; and the assistance of the United States with a small loan was declined, Mexican territory being demanded as See also:security. On the 14th of December Vera Cruz was occupied by Spanish troops under General See also:Prim; the French See also:fleet and troops arrived soon after, with instructions to seize and hold the Gulf ports and collect the customs for the three Powers till a See also:settlement was effected; Great Britain sent See also:ships, and landed only 700 See also:marines. In view of the unhealthiness of Vera Cruz, the convention of Soledad was concluded with the Mexican government, permitting the foreign troops to advance to See also:Orizaba and incidentally recognizing Mexican See also:independence. But as the French harboured leaders of the Mexican reactionaries, pressed the Jecker claims and showed a disposition to interfere in Mexican domestic politics, which See also:lay beyond the terms of the joint convention, Great Britain and Spain withdrew their forces in March 1862. More troops were sent from France. Their advance was checked by Zaragoza and Porfirio See also:Diaz in the See also:battle of Cinco de See also:Mayo, on the 5th of May 1862; and in See also:September of that. See also:year 30,000 more French troops arrived under General See also:Forey. Wintering at Orizaba, they recommenced their advance Benito Juarez. Miramon. (Feb. 17, 1863), besieged and reduced Puebla, and entered Mexico City on the 7th of See also:June. A provisional government of Mexicans, French nominated directly or indirectly by Dubois de Expedition, Saligny, adopted monarchy, offered the See also:crown to 1862-63. Maximilian of See also:Austria, brother of the See also:Emperor See also:Francis See also:Joseph, and should he refuse, left its disposal to Napoleon III. Maximilian, after some difficulty as to renouncing his right of See also:succession to the See also:throne of Austria, accepted the crown Maximilian subject to the approval of the Mexican See also:people, and Emperor, reached Mexico city on the 1 zth of June 1864. Juarez 1864. meanwhile had set up his capital, first in See also:San Luis See also:Potosi, then in See also:Chihuahua. The new empire was unstable from the first. Before Maximilian arrived the provisional government had refused to See also:cancel the sales of confiscated Church lands, as the clericals demanded. When he came, a See also:host of new difficulties arose. A new loan, nominally of about eight millions See also:sterling, but yielding little more than four, owing to See also:discount and commission, was raised in Europe, but no funds were really available for its service. Maximilian carried the elaborate See also:etiquette of the court of See also:Vienna to Mexico, but favouring See also:toleration of Protestantism, and the supremacy of the Crown over the Church, he was too liberal for the clericals who had set him up. As a foreigner he was unpopular, and the regiments of Austrians and Belgians which were to serve as the See also:nucleus of his own army were more so. His reforms, excellent on See also:paper, could not be carried out, for the trained bureaucracy necessary did not exist. For a time he nominally held sway over about two-thirds of the country—roughly, from See also:lat. 18° to 23°, thus excluding the extreme See also:north and See also:south. Oaxaca city, under Porfirio Diaz,' capitulated to See also:Bazaine—who had superseded the too See also:pro-clerical Forey in October 1864—in See also:February 1865, and by the autumn of that year the See also:condition of the Juarists in the north seemed desperate. But the towns asked for permanent French garrisons, which were refused, as weakening their own See also:power of self-defense. Instead, the country was traversed by flying columns, and the guerillas dealt with by a French service of " contre-guerilla," who fought with much the same savagery as their foes. Directly the French troops had passed, Republican bands sprang up, and the non-combatant Mexicans, to See also:save themselves, could only profess See also:neutrality. Yet on the 3rd of October 1865, Maximilian, misled by a false See also:report that Juarez had left the country, issued a decree declaring the Juarists guerillas, who, whenever captured, were to be tried by court-martial and shot. Mexican generals on both sides had done as much. But Maximilian's decree prepared his own See also:fate.
The American Civil War ended in the See also:spring of 1865, and a strong popular feeling was at once manifested in favour of asserting the See also:Monroe See also:doctrine against Maximilian's government. In the summer there were threatening movements of United Maximilian States troops towards the Rio Grande; early in 1866 deserted by Napoleon III. announced his intention of withdrawing France. his forces; in response to a See also:note of See also:Seward, the United States secretary of state, of the 12th of February 1866, he was induced to promise their return by three instalments—in November 1866, March and November 1867. Maximilian now turned for support to the Mexican clericals; meditated See also:abdication, but was dissuaded by his wife See also:Charlotte, the daughter of See also:Leopold I. of See also:Belgium (and " the better See also:man of the two," as he had once jestingly said), who went to intercede for him with the emperor of the French. Finding him obdurate, she went on to See also:appeal to the See also:pope; while at See also:Rome she went mad (end of September 1866).
Maximilian had meanwhile See also:drawn nearer to the clericals and farther from the French, and, to protect French interests, Napoleon III. had decided to send out General See also:Castelnau to supersede Bazaine, arrange for the withdrawal of the French forces in one body, and restore the See also:Republic under Ortega, who had quarrelled with Juarez, and was therefore, of all republicans, least unacceptable to the clericals. But fearing the prospect, they induced Maximilian, who had retired to Orizaba for his
' Diaz refused See also:parole, and was confined at Puebla for some months, but made his See also:escape, and was soon in the See also: Here, with Miramon, he was besieged by the Juarists under Escobedo, and the See also:garrison, when about to make a last See also:attempt to break out, was betrayed 2 by See also:Colonel See also:Lopez to the besiegers (May 15, 1867). See also:Execution of Maximilian, with the Mexican generals Miramon and Maximilian, Mejia, was tried by court-martial, and, refusing (or 1867. neglecting) to avail himself of various opportunities of escape, was convicted on charges which may be summarized as See also:rebellion, murder and See also:brigandage, on the 14th of June, and shot, with Miramon and Mejia, on the 19th of June 1867, despite many protests from European governments and prominent individuals, including See also:Garibaldi and See also:Victor See also:Hugo. (An effort to save him made by the U.S. Government was frustrated by the dilatoriness of the U.S. Minister accredited to Juarez's Government.) After considerable difficulty with the Republican Government, his body was brought to Europe. Meanwhile Porfirio Diaz had captured Puebla (April 2) and besieged Mexico City, which See also:fell on the 21st of June. The last anti-Juarist stronghold (Inayarit) submitted on the zoth of July 1867. A See also:good See also:deal of discontent existed Juarez President. among the republican See also:rank and See also:file, and Juarez's See also:election in October to the See also:presidency was opposed by Diaz's See also:friends, but without success. But so soon as Juarez was elected, insurrections See also:broke out, and brigandage prevailed throughout the following year. There were unsuccessful insurrections also in 1869 (clerical) and 187o (republican), but an See also:amnesty, passed on the 13th of October 187o, helped to restore See also:peace; trouble again arose, however, at the 1871 election, at which the candidates were Juarez, See also:Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada and Diaz. Juarez's continued re-election was regarded as unconstitutional, and no party obtaining a clear See also:majority, the See also:matter was thrown into Congress, which elected him. Diaz's supporters refused to recognize him, and a revolution broke out, which went on sporadically till Juarez's See also:death on the 18th of July Death of 1872. Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, as president of Juarez, the Supreme Court, succeeded him, and amnestied 1872. the rebels, but made no further concessions. In the next year, however, laws were passed repeating in a stronger See also:form the attacks of 18J7 on the supremacy of the Church, and prohibiting monastic See also:life. The first See also:day of 1873 was marked by the opening of the Vera Cruz & Mexico railway. See also:Protestant Adminismissions established themselves (with some opposi- tration of tion) in the country, and diplomatic relations were Lerdo de renewed with France and Spain (1874). But towards 7'e)ada. the See also:close of Lerdo de Tejada's See also:term he was suspected of aiming at a dictatorship, and Diaz, whom he had proscribed, made preparations for a rising, then retiring to See also:Texas. At the beginning of 1876 the revolution broke out in Oaxaca with the plan of Tuxtepec, which was adopted by Diaz, and proclaimed as the plan of Palo Blanco (March 21). Diaz's attempt to raise the north, however, failed, and, trying to reach Vera Cruz by See also:sea, he was recognized on the steamer, and recaptured while attempting a four-mile swim ashore. The See also:purser, however, made it appear that he had again jumped overboard, concealed him for some days—generally inside one of the See also:saloon sofas—and helped him to get ashore in disguise at Vera Cruz. He then escaped to Oaxaca and raised a force. Lerdo was declared re-elected, but was overthrown by Diaz after the battle of Tecoac (Nov. 16, 1876) and forced into See also:exile (See also:Jan. 1877), and Diaz was declared ,president on the 2nd of May porflrio 1877. A law forbidding the re-election of a presi- dent till four years had elapsed from his retirement President, from See also:office was passed in the autumn of that year. 1877. 2 Lopez said he acted as Maximilian's See also:agent, but his See also:story rested on an alleged See also:letter from Maximilian which was discredited as a See also:forgery. The See also:evidence of his See also:treason was published in El See also:National of Mexico, Sept. u, 1887. Diaz's first presidency (1870–1880) was marked by some unsuccessful attempts at revolution notably by Escobedo from Texas in 1878, and by a more serious See also:conspiracy in 1879. Diplomatic relations were resumed with Spain, See also:Germany, See also:Italy and some South American states (1877), and France (188o). There were some frontier difficulties with the United States, and with Guatemala, which revived a claim dropped since 1858 to a portion of the state of See also:Chiapas; and there was considerable See also:internal progress, aided by a too liberal policy of subsidies to See also:railways and even to lines of steamships. The boundary questions were settled under President Gonzalez (1880-1884); relations with Great Britain were renewed in 1884. The claims of the railways, however, necessitated See also:retrenchment on See also:official salaries, and the president's plan for conversion of the See also:debt roused unexpected and successful opposition in an ordinarily subservient Congress. At the end of 1884 Porfirio Diaz was again elected president, and was continually re-elected, the constitution being modified expressly to allow him to continue in office. The history of Mexico from 1884 to 1910 was almost void of See also:political strife. President Diaz's policy was to keep down disorder with a strong See also:hand; to enforce the law; to Mexico See also:foster railway development and economic progress; under Diaz. to develop native manufactures by protective tariffs; to introduce new See also:industries, e.g. the See also:production of See also:silk and See also:wine, of See also:coca and See also:quinine; to promote forestry; to improve elementary and higher See also:education—for all which purposes the Ministerio del Fomento is a potent See also:engine; to encourage colonization; and, above all, to place the national See also:credit on a See also:sound basis. The first step in this See also:process was a settlement of the Financial British debt by See also:direct arrangement with the bondreorganiza- holders. In 1890 the Spanish bondholders' claims tion. were satisfactorily arranged also. In 1891 the See also:tariff was made more protectionist. In 1893 the depreciation of See also:silver necessitated stringent retrenchment; but the See also:budget balanced for the first time during many years, the floating debt was converted, and a loan raised for the completion of the Tehuantepec Railway. After 1896 substantial See also:annual surpluses were spent in reducing See also:taxation and in the extinction of debt. In 1895 the 6% See also:external debt was converted into a 5% debt, the bonds of which remained at a See also:premium for 1902; in 1896 the alcabalas or interstate customs and municipal octrois were abolished, and replaced in See also:part by direct taxation and increased See also:stamp duties. The institution by Diaz of the guardias rurales, a mounted See also:gendarmerie composed of the class who in former days drifted Pacification into revolution and brigandage, was a potent means of the of maintaining See also:order, and the See also:extension of railways country. and telegraphs enabled the government to See also:cope at once with any disturbance. The old local revolutions practically disappeared. In 1886–1887 there were some disturbances in See also:Coahuila, New See also:Leon, See also:Sinaloa and See also:Tamaulipas; subsequently hardly anything was heard of such disorders except on the Texan frontier, where in 1890 Francisco See also:Ruiz Sandoval and in 1891 Catarino Garza made incursions into Mexico. Occasionally the Church gave trouble—the presence of foreign priests was complained of; attempts to evade the law prohibiting conventual life were detected and foiled (1891, 1894); and there were Indian risings, repressed sometimes with great severity, among the Mayas of See also:Yucatan, whose last stronghold was taken in 1891, and the Yaquis of Sonora (1899–1900). Under federal and democratic forms, Diaz exercised a strictly centralized and See also:personal See also:rule. He was invited to approve the candidates proposed for state governorships; in all law cases affecting the Government or political matters the See also:judges asked his See also:opinion; he drafted bills, and discussed their See also:text with individual members and committees of congress. Similarly, the state legislatures, as well as the judges and municipal officers, were actually or virtually selected by the state See also:governors, who were practically agents of the president. Now and then the old passions broke out: in September 1898 an absurd attempt to assassinate President Diaz was made by a countryman named See also:Arroyo, but discontent with Diaz's rule was apparently confinedto a small minority.' In 1909 indeed there were some disquieting symptoms. Owing to Diaz's See also:age the See also:vice-presidency had been revived in 1904, and See also:Don Ramon See also:Corral elected to it; but at the elections of 1909 a See also:movement arose in favour of replacing him by General Bernardo Reyes, Governor of Nuevo Leon, but he was disposed of by an official commission to study the military systems of Europe. It was, therefore, regarded as certain that, should President Diaz See also:die in office, Senor Corral would succeed him without serious difficulty. In foreign affairs the rule of Diaz was uneventful. There were transient disputes with the United States (1886, 1888). In 1888–1890 and 1894–1895 a boundary dispute with Guatemala became serious. But Guatemala gave way at the See also:threat of war (Jan. 1895) and a new treaty was made (April 1, 1895). Again in 1907 there was some See also:friction owing to the murder of a Guatemalan ex-president by a compatriot in Mexico: later in the year, however, the Mexican government was active in stopping a war between its Central American neighbours. In the difficulty between See also:England and the United States over the Venezuelan boundary (Dec. 1895) Mexico expressed strong adherence to the Monroe doctrine in the abstract, and suggested that its See also:maintenance should not be left wholly to the United States, but should be undertaken by all American Powers. The first See also:Pan-American congress met in Mexico City in 19or, and the country was represented at the second, held in Rio Janeiro in 1906. Mexico also took part in establishing the permanent Central American Court of See also:Arbitration, inaugurated on the 25th of May 1908 at See also:Cartago, See also:Costa Rica, under the See also:Washington See also:treaties of December 1907, and showed readiness to See also:associate herself with the Government of her great See also:northern See also:neighbour in preserving peace among the Central American States. On the 17th of October 1909 President See also:Taft and President Diaz exchanged visits at the frontier at El Paso, Texas. In brief, under President Diaz's rule the history of Mexico is mainly economic. In the six financial years 1893–1894 to 1899–1900 inclusive the yield of the import duties increased by upwards of 8o%; the See also:revenue from Eco See also:gross. nomic Pro stamps over 6o%, though the duties were reduced; the postal revenue from 1895–1896 to 1899–1900 See also:rose 6o%; the See also:telegraph revenue over 75%. Again, in 1898–1899 the See also:total ordinary revenue of the state was £6,013,921; in 1906–1907 it had increased to £11,428,612, or by more than 90%, and though 1907–1908 was a year of depression its total revenue (£11,177,186) exceeded that of any year save its immediate predecessor. The great drainage scheme which completed the See also:works of the 17th See also:century by taking out the surplus See also:waters of the See also:southern lakes of the valley of Mexico was devised in 1856, begun under Maximilian, proceeded with intermittently till 1885, then taken up with improved plans, practically completed by 1896, and inaugurated in 1900;2 the See also:harbour of Vera Cruz was finished in 1902; the Tehuantepec railway, likely to prove a formidable rival to any interoceanic canal, was opened on the 24th of January 1906. All three were the work of an See also:English See also:firm of contractors, the See also:head of which was See also:Sir Weetman See also:Pearson. American, and later See also:Canadian, capital and enterprise have also been very largely concerned in the development of the country; and its progress was not permanently interfered with by the great earthquakes of April 1907 and July 19o9 at Acapulco, and the floods in See also:August 1909 at See also:Monterey. In 1891 elementary education was reorganized, and made compulsory, See also:secular and gratuitous. Great See also:attention has been paid to higher education, and—at least in the hospitals—to modern sanitation and See also:hygiene. ' Don Augustin See also:Iturbide, See also:grandson of the emperor, godson and (perhaps) at one time the destined See also:heir of Maximilian, was turned out of the army and imprisoned in 1890 for abusing President Diaz. 2 For a full See also:account of the works see J. B. Body in Proceedings of the Institution of Civil See also:Engineers, cxliii. 286, sqq. Foreign Affairs. (Texas), and vol. xvii. (New Mexico, &c.). Mention may also be made of Gaston Routier's Histoire de Mexique (1895). See also:Standard Mexican authorities are: C. M. de Bustamante, Quadro historico de la revolution mexicana, 6 vols. (Mexico, 1832—1846) ; See also:Lucas Alaman, Historia de Mexico (Mexico, 1849—1852); N. de Zamacois, Historia de Mexico desde See also:sus tiempos mas remotos hasta nostras dias, 19 vols. (See also:Barcelona, 1876—1882) ; J. E. Hernandez y Davalos, Coleccion de documentos See also:para la historia de la Independencia (Mexico, 6 vols). A huge and informative illustrated work, edited by Justo Sierra (3 vols. large 4to), sumptuously produced and badly translated, is Mexico, its Social See also:Evolution (Barcelona, 1900—1904) ; a useful and handy See also:chronicle is See also:Nicolas Leon's Compendio de la historic general de Mexico hasta el ano de r9oo (Mexico and See also:Madrid, 1902). For the colonial See also:period, See also: See also:Ripley, The War with Mexico (New See also:York, 1849) ; E. D. Mans-field, The Mexican War (New York, 1849); and See also:Winfield See also:Scott's See also:Memoirs. For Maximilian, the See also:Blue-books on Mexican affairs contained in Accounts and Papers (presented to See also:parliament), vol. lxv. 1862, and vol. 1xiv. 1863, are valuable; E. de See also:Keratry, La Creance Jecker; l'empereur Maximilien, son See also:elevation et sa chute (translated into English by Venables) ; La Contre-guerilla francaise au Mexique, are specially noteworthy; See also:Prince See also:Felix Salm-Salm's See also:Diary gives valuable See also:information as to Maximilian's decline and fall. Also Dela Gorce, Histoire du second empire, vols. iv. v.; J. F. Domenech, L'Empire mexicain (Mexico, 1866), and Le Mexique tel qu'il est (Paris, 1867) ; Daran, El General Miguel Miramon (in French) (Rome, 1886) ; See also:Schmidt von Tavera, Gesch. d. Regierung d. Kaisers Maximilian I. (Vienna, 1903). Ulick See also:Ralph See also:Burke's Life of Benito Juarez (London, 1894) is of considerable value and interest. For the period since 1887 information in English must be sought chiefly in See also:magazine articles: Matias Romero, " The Garza See also:Raid and its Lessons," North American See also:Review (Sept. 1892) ; Don Agustin Iturbide, " Mexico under Diaz," ibid. (June 1894) ; Romero, " The See also:Philosophy of Mexican Revolutions," ibid. (Jan. 1896) ; and C. F. Lummis, " The Awakening of a Nation " (New York, 1898, previously in Harper's Magazine), are valuable as giving information (especially the last named) and points of view. See also:Van Dyke, " Politics in Mexico," Harper's Magazine (1885), vol. lxxi., gives particulars of the opposition to Gonzalez's debt conversion scheme of 1884. President Diaz's See also:message of November 1896, giving an account of his stewardship from 1884 to that year, has been translated into French (Rapport du General Porfirio Diaz a ses compatriotes sur See also:les actes de son See also:administration, &c.), edited by Auguste Genin (Paris, 1897). The early constitutions of the Republic have been published (in Spanish) in three volumes; a study of that of 1857 by B. See also:Moses (of the University of See also:California) is in the See also:Annals of the American See also:Academy of Political See also:Science, II. i. 1891. Various books, chiefly American, have been written on Mexico of late years from a tourist's standpoint. Mrs Alec Tweedie's Mexico as I saw it (London, 1901) and Life of Porfirio Diaz (1906) contain valuable information personally obtained from good authorities in Mexico. See also See also:Percy F. See also: Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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