See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

The See also:

• TOTAL

Besides the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

The Baltic coast is further marked by large indentations, the Gulf of Lubeck, that of Pomerania, east of Rugen, and the semicircular Bay of Danzig between the promontories of Rixhoft and Briisterort. The German coasts are well provided with lighthouses. See also:

• SURFACE

(at See also:

• ULM

The south-western corner of the empire contains a series of better defined See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

On the northern See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

In the south of the hilly duchy of Hesse rise the isolated mountain groups of the Vogelsberg (2530 ft.) and the Rhon (3117 ft.), separated by the valley of the See also:

• FULDA

Numerous quarries, which See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

The North German plain presents little variety, yet is not absolutely uniform. A See also:

• ROW, JOHN (c. 1525—1580)

The finely wooded heights which surround the bays of the east coast of Holstein and Schleswig may be regarded as a continuation of these Baltic elevations. The lowest parts, therefore, of the North German plain, excluding the sea-coasts, are the central districts from about 52° to 53° N. See also:

• LAT

Its total length is 1750 m., and the Bavarian frontier at Passau, where the Inn joins it, is only 350 m. distant from its sources. It is navigable as far as Ulm, 220 M. above Passau ; and its tributaries the Lech, Isar, Inn and Altmuhl are also navigable. The Rhine is the most important river of Germany., although neither its sources nor its mouths are within the limits of the empire. From the Lake of Constance to Basel (122 m.) the Rhine forms the boundary between the German empire and Switzer-land; the See also:

• CANTON
• CANTON (borrowed from the Ital. cantone, a corner or angle)
• CANTON (more correctly KWANG-CHOW Fu)
• CANTON, JOHN (1718-1772)

The navigable tributaries of the Elbe are the Saale (below See also:

• NAUMBURG

The largest of these are the three Haffs—the Oder Haff covering 370 sq. m., the Frische Haff, 332, and the Kurische Haff, 626. The lakes in the Prussian and Pomeranian provinces, in Mecklenburg and in Holstein, and those of the Havel, have already been mentioned. In the west the only lakes of importance are the Steinhuder See also:

• MEER, JAN VAN DER (1632-1675)
• MEER, OSWALD (1809–1883)

Other Palaeozoic systems are, however, included in the folds. The See also:

• CAMBRIAN

In Saxony also the upper Cretaceous beds rest directly upon the Palaeozoic or Archaean rocks. Still more to the east, in the province of Silesia, both Jurassic and Cretaceous beds are again met with, but they are to a large extent concealed by the See also:

• RECENT

These are in part of glacial origin, and contain Scandinavian boulders; but fluviatile and aeolian deposits also occur. Quaternary beds also See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

The extremes of See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

West of the Weser the average temperature of January exceeds 32°; to the east it sinks to 30°, and therefore the Elbe is generally covered with ice for some months of the year, as are also its tributaries. The farther Quaternary Tertiary Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic Permian Carboniferous Deuonlan EmeryWalkc, Siluro-Cambrian Archaean & Metamorphic Plutonic Rocks al Volcanic Rocks Mt;i +++1 fss one proceeds to the east the greater are the contrasts of summer and winter. While the average summer warmth of Germany is 60° to 62°, the January temperature falls as low as 26° to 28° in West Prussia, See also:

• POSEN
• POSEN (Polish Poznan)

In western Germany there is a See also:

• DISTRICT

See also:

• RAPE
• RAPE (from Lat. rapere, to seize)
• RAPE (Lat. rapum or rapa, turnip)

Of See also:

• GAME

Population.-Until comparatively recent times no estimate of the population of Germany was precise enough to be of any. value. At the beginning of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

1905. Sq. m. Kingdoms- 134,616 24,691,433 25,742,404 34,472,509 37,293,324 277'3 Prussia Bavaria 29,292 4,863,450 5,022,390 6,176,057 6,524,372 222.7 Saxony 5,789 2,556,244 2,760,586 4,202,216 4,508,601 778.8 Wurttemberg 7,534 1,818,539 1,881,505 , 2,169,480 2,302,179 305.5 Grand-Duchies- 5,823 1,461,562 1,507,179 1,867,944 2,010,728 345.3 Baden Hesse 2,966 852,894 884,218 1,119,893 1,209,175 407.6 Mecklenburg-Schwerin . 5,068 557,897 553,785 607,770 625,045 123'3 Saxe-Weimar 1,397 286,183 292,933 362,873 388,095 277'8 Mecklenburg-Strelitz 1,131 96,982 95,673 102,602 103,451 91.5 Oldenburg 2,482 314,459 319,314 399,180 438,856 176.8 Duchies- 1,418 311,764 327,493 464,333 485,958 342'5 Brunswick Saxe-Meiningen 953 187,957 194,494 250,731 268,916 282.2 Saxe-Altenburg 511 142,122 145,844 194,914 206,508 404'1 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 764 174,339 182,599 229,550 242,432 317'3 Anhalt 888 203,437 213,565 316,085 328,029 369.4 Principalities- 333 75,523 76,676 80,898 85,152 255.7 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. 363 67,191 67,480 93,059 96,835 266.7 Waldeck 433 56,224 54,743 57,918 59,127 136'5 Reuss-Greiz 122 45,094 46,985 68,396 70,603 578'7 Reuss-Schleiz 319 89,032 92,375 139,210 144,584 453'2 Schaumburg-Lippe 131 32,059 33,133 43,132 44,992 343'4 Lippe 469 111,135 112,452 138,952 145,577 310'4 Free Towns- 115 52,158 56,912 96,775 105,857 920'5 Lubeck Bremen 99 122,402 142,200 224,882 263,440 2661.0 Hamburg 16o 338,974 388,6T8 768,349 874,878 5467.9 Imperial Territory- 5,604 1,549,738 1,531,804 1,719,470 1,814,564 323'8 Alsace-Lorraine German Empire 208,780 41,058,792 42,727,360 56,367,178 60,641,278 290'4 POPULATION) The population of the empire has thus increased, since 187r, by 19,582,486 or 47.6%. The increase of population during 1895-'900 was greatest in Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck, Saxony, Prussia and Baden, and least in Mecklenburg-Strelitz and Waldeck. Of the total population in 1900, 54.3 % was See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

See also:

• ILLEGITIMACY (from " illegitimate," Lat. illegitimus, not in accordance with law, hence born out of lawful wedlock)

Languages.-The German-speaking nations in their various branches and dialects, if we include the Dutch and the See also:

• WALLOONS (Wallons, from a common Teut. word meaning " foreign," cf. Ger. Welsch, Du. waalsch, Eng. Welsh)

In the Prussian provinces of Silesia and Posen the eastern parts are mixed territories, the German language progressing very slowly among the Poles. In See also:

• BROMBERG

Switzerland France . . According to the census of the 1st of December 1900 there were 51,634,757 persons speaking commonly one language and 248,374 speaking two languages. In the kingdom of Saxony, according to the census of 1900, there were 48,000 See also:

• WENDS

Population. Berlin Prussia 2,040,148 Hamburg Hamburg 802,793 Munich Bavaria 538,393 Dresden Saxony 516,996 Leipzig „ 502,570 Breslau Prussia 470,751 Cologne „ 428,503 Frankfort-on-Main 334,951 See also:

• NUREMBERG (Ger. Nurnberg)

In some places, indeed, it is far greater, e.g. at the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, in East Holstein, in the See also:

• DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

The greater number of the more recent emigrants was from the agricultural provinces of northern Germany—West Prussia, Posen, Pomerania, Mecklenburg, Schleswig-Holstein and Hanover, and sometimes the emigration reached 1% of the total population of these provinces. In subsequent years the emigration of native Germans greatly decreased and, in 1905, amounted only to 28,075. But to this number must be added 284,787 foreigners who in that year were shipped from German ports (notably Hamburg and Bremen) to distant parts. Of the above given See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

In south Germany the so-called Fruchtwechsel is practised, the fields being sown with grain crops every second year, and with See also:

• PEASE, EDWARD (1767–1858)

The soil occupied by hops was estimated in 1905 at 98,000 acres—a larger area than in Great Britain, which had in the same year about 48,000 acres. The total production of hops was 29,000 tons in 1905, and of this over 25,000 were grown in Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden and Alsace-Lorraine. Almost the whole yield in hops is consumed in the country by the great breweries. Tobacco forms a most productive and profitable See also:

• OBJECT

In the valley of the Saale and Elbe (near Dresden), and in lower Silesia (between Guben and See also:

• GRUNBERG

The breeding of horses has attained a great perfection. The main centre is in East and West Prussia, then follow the marsh districts on the Elbe and Weser, some parts of Westphalia, Oldenburg, Lippe, Saxony and upper Silesia, lower Bavaria and Alsace-Lorraine. Of the See also:

• STUD

On the whole, despite the prosperous condition of the German live-stock farming, the consumption of See also:

• MEAT

Germany produces more silver than any other European state, and the quantity is annually increasing. It is extracted from the ores in the mines of Freiburg (Saxony), the Harz Mountains, upper Silesia, See also:

• MERSEBURG

There are six large coal-Coal. fields, occupying an area of about 3600 sq. m., of which the most important occupies the basin of the Ruhr, its extent being estimated at 2800 sq. m. Here there are more than 6o beds, of a total thickness of 150 to 200 ft. of coal ; and the amount in the pits has been estimated at 45,000 millions of tons. Smaller fields are found near Osnabruck, Ibbenbfiren and Minden, and a larger one near Aix-la-Chapelle. The Saar coal-field, within the area enclosed by the rivers Saar, See also:

• NAHE

That of See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

The total yield of See also:

• MINED

Of thetotal production of pig iron in 1905 amounting to over io,000,000 tons, more than the half was produced in the Rhineland and Westphalia. Huge blast furnaces are in constant activity, and the output of rolled iron and steel is constantly increasing. In the latter the greatest advance has been made. The greater part of it is produced at or around Essen, where are the famous See also:

• KRUPP, ALFRED (1812—1887)

Before 1871 the production of cotton fabrics in France exceeded that in Germany, but as the cotton manufacture is pursued largely in Alsace, the See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

Hands. See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

The manufacture of woollen and half-woollen See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

The manufacture of See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

Beer is produced throughout the whole of Germany. The production is relatively greatest in Bavaria. The Brausieuergebiet Beer. (beer See also:

• EXCISE (derived through the Dutch, excijs or accijs, possibly from Late Lat. accensare,—ad, to, and census, tax; the word owes something to a confusion with excisum, cut out)

With progressive territorial extensions during the ensuing fifty years, and embracing the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, it had in 1871, when the German empire was founded, an area of about 209,281 sq. m., with a population of 40,678,000. The last important addition was in See also:

• OCTOBER

The See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

In 1905 the figures were—imports, £371,000,000, and exports, £292,000,000, including See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

. 12,510,600 2,631,600 Paper goods 1,086,800 7,158,800 Furs 265,700 720,200 See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

Value in £I000. Value in £1000. 1907. 1908.1 1907. 1908.1 Agricultural and forest See also:

• PRO

Earths and stones 6,541 7,542 3,25o 3,006 Ores, slag, cinders 16,465 15,451 1,407 1,206 Mineral fuel . 16,895 14,910 19,445 20,020 Mineral oils and other 7,168 7,209 558 491 fossil raw materials . Coal-tar, coal-tar oils 506 428 1,506 1,485 1 Provisional figures only. 2 Excluding vegetable and animal textile materials. 2 Excluding vegetable textile materials. Imports. Exports. Groups of Articles. Value in £1000. Value in £1000. 1907. 1908.4 1907.

1908.4 Chemical and pharma- 14,784 14,850 28,116 26,845 ceutical products, colours Chemical See also:

• PRIMARY

13,533 13,704 13,324 11,364 Wool ... . 33,260 31,195 27,114 24,918 Unworked wool . . . 19,975 19,309 2,647 2,561 Worked wool 4,625 4,961 3,799 3,393 Wares of spun wool 8,66o 6,925 20,668 18,964 Cotton . . . 38,543 34,456 29,004 26,201 Unworked cotton . 27,705 26,167 3,264 2,987 Worked cotton . . 980 950 1912 891 Cotton wares 9,858 7,338 24,828 22,324 Other vegetable textile 10,783 10,411 3,777 3,471 materials . . . Unworked 7,923 7,819 1,See also:

• I25

. 2,685 2,423 2,531 2,124 Leather and leather wares, 6,695 6,657 16,778 17,835 furriers' wares . . Leather 2,658 2,804 7,503 8,328 Leather wares . . 1,332 1,176 4,016 3,867 Furriers' wares . . 2,698 2,672 5,237 5,616 Caoutchouc wares . 694 754 2,328 2,325 Wares of soft caoutchouc 670 735 1,694 1,723 Hardened caoutchouc and 24 19 634 602 wares thereof . . Wares of animal or vegetable 2,448 2,068 4,260 4,131 material for See also:

• CARVING

. . 4,302 3,560 37,933 39,257 See also:

• ALUMINIUM (symbol Al; atomic weight 27.0)

375 527 ,6o 233 4 Provisional figures only. Imports. Exports. Groups of Articles. Value in £I000. Value in £I000. 1907. 1968.1 1907. 1908.1 Nickel wares . . . 25 13 86 65 Copper and copper wares 13,803 15,088 7,998 8,470 Raw copper (including 12,995 14,192 2,204 2,014 copper See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

808 896 5,794 6,456 Instruments of precision 813 885 4,877 4,982 Machinery, vehicles 7,093 5,489 33,117 34,653 Machinery . . . . 4,090 3,451 19,041 20,684 Imports. Exports. Groups of Articles. Value in £I000. Value in £I000. 1907. 1908.1 1907. 1908.1 Electro-tcchnical products 411 451 8,227 9,107 Vehicles and vessels . 2,562 1,587 5,849 4,862 Firearms, clocks, musical 1,732 1,424 8,704 7,505 instruments, toys . Clocks and watches .

1,382 1,134 1,296 1,210 Musical instruments 223 170 3,176 2,780 Toys 39 35 3,949 3,273 Total . . 442,663 429,636 349,114 336,347 1 Provisional figures only. The following table shows the commercial intercourse in imports and exports, exclusive of See also:

• BULLION

Imports. Imports. Belgium 13,439 3.8 14,315 3.6 14,586 3'4 See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Value of Value of Value of in Germany's in Germany's in Germany's £I000. Total £I000. Total £1000. Total Exports. Exports. Exports. Belgium 15,364 5.5 17,509 5.6 16,861 5 Denmark 8,668 3.1 9,699 3.1 10,182 3 France 14,420 5.1 18,815 6 22,080 6.6 United Kingdom 51,253 18.2 52,473 16.8 52,135 15.5 Italy . . . 8,045 2.9 11,354 3.6 14,893 4.4 Netherlands 21,295 7.6 21,799 7 22,232 6.6 See also:

• NORWAY
• NORWAY (Norge)

17,027 6 19,962 6.4 21,531 6.4 Sweden . 7,653 2.7 8,675 2.8 9,177 2.7 Switzerland . 17,649 6.3 18,367 5.9 21,948 6'5 Spain . 2,609 0.9 2,838 0.9 3,228 British South Africa 1,687 o•6 1,607 0.5 1,422 0.4 Dominion of Canada 1,071 0.4 1,203 0.4 1,456 0.4 New Zealand . 227 ,0.1 244 0.1 263 0.1 See also:

• TURKEY

The following tables give the value of trade between the United Kingdom and Germany in 1900 and 1905:- See also:

• STAPLE

3,843,917 4,941,917 Woollens and yarn 3,743,842 3,795,591 See also:

• ALPACA

5917 1,589,346 5059 1,219,388 British . . . 5327 5,129,017 3211 2,552,268 See also:

• SWEDISH

The development of the railway system was slow and was not conceived on any uniform plan. The want of a central government operated injuriously, for it often happened that intricate negotiations and See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

The purchase of the railways by the Prussian government was on the whole equably carried out, but there were several hard cases in the See also:

• EXPROPRIATION

Tonnage. Number. Tonnage. 1905- Sailing vessels . 386 19,067 2181 559,436 2567 578,503 Steamers 486 236,509 1171 1,537,563 1657 1,774,072 Totals 872 255,576 3352 2,096,999 4224 2,352,575 1908- Sailing vessels 394 17,472 2255 516,180 2649 533,652 Steamers . . 521 274,952' 1401 1,981,831 1922 2,256,783 Totals . 915 292,424 3656 2,498,011 4571 12,790,435 in Berlin, the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

The system of the kingdom of Saxony has a length of 1616 m., and is controlled by the general direction in Dresden. The length of the Wurttemberg system is 1141 m., and is managed by a general direction in Stuttgart. Baden (state) controls 1233, Oldenburg (state) 382, Mecklenburg-Schwerin 726 and Saxe-Weimar 257 M. respectively. See also:

• RAIL

The above rates include government duty; but the See also:

• PRIVILEGE

A project was sanctioned in 1905 for a canal, adapted for vessels up to 600 tons, from the Rhine to the Weser at Hanover, utilizing a portion of the Dortmund-Ems canal; for a channel accommodating vessels of similar See also:

• SIZE

The introduction of railways for a time diverted attention from road-making, but this neglect has of late been to some extent remedied. In Prussia the districts (Kreise) have undertaken the charge of the construction of the roads; but they receive a See also:

• SUBSIDY (through Fr. from Lat. subsidium, reserve troops, aid, assistance, from subsidere, literally " to sit or remain behind or in reserve,")

Post Offices. Men employed. 1872 7,518 r 88o 9,460 1890 24,952 128,687 1899 36,388 206,945 1904 38,658 261,985 1907 40,083 319,026 In 1872 there were 2359 See also:

• TELEGRAPH (Gr. Tike, far, and rypaq5eiv, to write)

In his office he is assisted by a federal See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

Both the Bundesrat and the Reichstag meet in annual sessions convoked by the emperor who has the right of proroguing and dissolving the Diet; but the See also:

• PROROGATION

In case of an equal number of votes being See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

I 3 Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine . .. 15 Total . 58 397 The Reichstag must meet at least once in each year. Since See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

9 5 Bund der Landwirte 3 6 Bauernbund . 3 All the German states have separate representative assemblies, except Alsace-Lorraine and the two grand-duchies of Mecklenburg. The six larger states have adopted the two-chamber system, but in the composition of the houses great differences are found. The lesser states also have chambers of representatives numbering from 12 members (in Reuss-Greiz) to 48 members (in Brunswick), and in most states the different classes, as well as the cities and the rural districts, are separately represented. The free towns have legislative assemblies, numbering from 120 to 200 members. Imperial See also:

• MEASURES

But the heads of these do not form a See also:

• CABINET

3. The ministry of the interior or home office (under the conduct of a secretary of state). This office is divided into four departments, dealing with (i.) the business of the Bundesrat, the Reichstag, the elections, citizenship, passports, the press, and military and naval matters, so far as the last concern the civil authorities; (ii.) purely social matters, such as old age See also:

• PENSIONS

The imperial railway board (Reichseisenbahnamt), the chief official of which has the title of " president," deals exclusively with the management of the railways throughout the empire, in so far as they fall under the control of the imperial authorities in respect of laws passed for their harmonious interworking, their tariffs and the safety of passengers conveyed. 8. The imperial post office (Reichspostamt), under a secretary of state, controls the post and telegraph administration of the empire (with the exception of Bavaria and Wurttemberg), as also those in the colonies and dependencies. 9. The imperial office for the administration of the imperial railways in Alsace-Lorraine, the chief of which is the Prussian See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

Colonies.—The following table gives some particulars of the dependencies of the empire: Except Kiao-chow, which is controlled by the admiralty, the dependencies of the empire are under the direction of the colonial office. This office, created in 1907, replaced the colonial department of the foreign office which previously had had charge of colonial affairs. The value of the trade of the colonies with Germany in 1906 was: imports into Germany, £1,028,000; exports from Germany, £2,236,000. For 1907 the total revenue from the colonies was £849,000; the expenditure of the empire on the colonies in the same year being £4,362,000. (See the articles on the various colonies.) See also:

• LOCAL

Moreover, under the careful classification of affairs into local and central, many things which in England are regarded as local (e.g. See also:

• EDUCATION

In Prussia the classes of administrative areas are as follows: (I) the province, (2) the government district (Regierungsbezirk), (3) the rural circle (Landkreis) and urban Circle (Stadtkreis), (4) the official district (Amtsbezirk), (5) the town commune (Stadtgemeinde) and rural commune (Landgemeinde). Of these areas the provinces, circles and communes are for the purposes both of the central administration and of local self-government, and the bodies by which they are governed are corporations. The Regierungsbezirke and Amtsbezirke, on the other hand, are for the purposes of the central administration only and are not incorporated. The Prussian system is explained in greater detail in the article PRUSSIA (q.v). Here it must suffice to indicate briefly the general features of local government in the other German states, as compared with that injrussia. The province, which usually covers the area of a formerly independent state (e.g. Hanover) is peculiar to Prussia. The Regierungsbezirk, however, is common to the larger states under various names, Regierungsbezirk in Bavaria, Kreishauptmannschaft in Saxony, KreisinWurttemberg. Common to all is the president(Regierungsprasident, Kreishauptmann in Saxony), an official who, with a committee of advisers, is responsible for the oversight of the administration of the circles and communes within his jurisdiction. Whereas in Prussia, however, the Regierung is purely official, with no representative See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

The representative assembly of the Circle (Kreistag, Distrikisrat. in Bavaria, Amtsversammlung in Wurttemberg, Bezirksversammlung in Saxony) is elected by the communes, and is presided over by an official, either elected or, as in the case of the Prussian Landrat, nominated from a See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

For common purposes several communes may combine, such combinations being termed in Wurttemberg Burgermeistereien, in the Rhine province Amtsverbande. In general the communes are of slight importance. Where the land is held by small See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

The province of Hanover retains its system as emended in 1858, and Hesse-Nassau, with the exception of Frankfort-on-Main, received a special corporate system in 1897. The municipal systems of Bavaria, Wurttemberg and Saxony are more or less based on that of Stein, but with a wider sphere of self-government. In Mecklenburg there is no uniform system. In Saxe-Coburg, the towns of Coburg and See also:

• NEUSTADT (Polish, Prudnik)

In the large towns the burgomasters must be jurists, and are paid. The police are under the control of the Magistrat, except in certain large cities, where they are under a separate state department. The second system mentioned above (Burgermeistereiverfassung) prevails in the Rhine province, the Bavarian Palatinate, Hesse, Saxe-Weimar, Anhalt, Waldeck and the principalities of Reuss and Schwarzburg. In Wurttemberg, Baden and Hesse-Nassau the system is a See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

They are also competent to deal with all disputes as to See also:

• WAGES (the plural of " wage," from Late Lat. wadium, a pledge, O. Fr. wagier, gagier)

The supreme court of the German empire is the Reichsgericht, having its seat at Leipzig. The judges, numbering ninety-two, are appointed by the emperor on the See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

The proceedings in thecourts are, as a rule, public. Only in exceptional circumstances are cases heard in See also:

• CAMERA (a Latin adaptation of Gr. Kagapa, an arched chamber)

But any destitute German subject must be relieved by the local union in which he happens to be at the time, the cost of the relief being defrayed by the local or provincial union in which he has his domicile. The wife and See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

Persons convicted. Convictions Year. Total. per 10,000 Amtsgericht. Land gericht. Males. Females. Inhabitants. 1900 1,143,687 94,241 396,975 72,844 469,819 119.5 1901 1,205,558 101,471 419,592 77,718 497,310 125.6 1902 1,221,080 104,434 431,257 81,072 512,329 127.3 1903 1,251,662 105,241 424,813 80,540 505,353 123.4 1904 1,287,686 105,457 435,191 81,785 516,976 124.2 Of those convicted in 1904, 225,326 had been previously convicted. partly by new machinery devised to meet the new obligation imposed. The sick-funds (Krankenkassen) are thus of seven kinds: (i) free assistance funds (Freie Hilfskassen), either registered under the law of 1876, as modified in 1884 (Eingeschriebene Hilfskassen), or established under the law of the separate states (landesrechtliche Hilfskassen) ; (2) Betriebs- or Fabrikkrankenkassen, funds established by individual factory-owners; (3) Baukrankenkasse, a fund established for workmen engaged on the construction (Bast) of particular See also:

• ENGINEERING

The Ortskrankenkassen, with 4,975,322 members, had the greatest, and the Baukrankenkassen, with 16,459, the smallest number of members. The Ortskrankenkassen; which endeavour to include workmen of a like trade, have to a great extent, especially in Saxony, fallen under the control of the Social Democrats. The See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

The pensions, in case of invalidity, amount (including a state subsidy of £2, Ios. for each) respectively to £8, 8s.; £II, 5s.; £13, Ios.; £15, 151.; and £18. The old-age pensions (beginning at 70 years) amount to £5, Ios.; £7; £8, Ios.; Do; and £I I, Ios. The old-age and invalid insurance is carried out by thirty-one large territorial offices, to which must be added nine special unions. The income of the forty establishments was, in 1903, £8,500,000 (including £1,700,000 imperial subsidy). The capital collected was upwards of £50,000,000. It may be added that employees in mercantile and trading houses, who have not exceeded the age of 40 years and whose income is below £150, are allowed voluntarily to share in the benefits of this insurance. 3. Accident Insurance (Unfallversicherung).—The insurance of workmen and the lesser officials against the risks of accident is effected not through the state or the commune, but through associations formed ad hoc. These associations are composed of members following the same or allied occupations (e.g. foresters, seamen, smiths, &c.), and hence are called " professional associations " (Berufsgenossenschaften). They are empowered, subject to the limits set by the law, to regulate their own business by means of a general See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

So far as their earnings do not exceed £150 perannum, the following classes are under the legal obligation to insure: labourers in mines,quarries,See also:

• DOCKYARDS

See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Almost two-thirds of the population belong to the Evangelical Church, and rather more than a third to the Church of Rome; the actual figures (based on the census of 1900) being (%) Evangelical Protestants, 62'5; Roman Catholics, 36-1; Dissenters and others, •043, and Jews, 1•o. The Protestants have not increased proportionately in number since 189o, while the Roman Catholics show a small relative increase. Three states in Germany have a decidedly predominant Roman Catholic population, viz. Alsace-Lorraine, Bavaria and Baden; and in four states the Protestant element prevails, but with from 24 to 34 % of Roman Catholics; viz. Prussia, Wurttemberg, Hesse and Oldenburg. In Saxony and States. Evangelicals. Catholics. Other Jews. Christians. Prussia . 21,817,577 12,113,670 139,127 392,322 Bavaria 1,749,206 4,363,178 7,607 54,928 Saxony .

3,972,063 198,265 19,103 12,416 Wurttemberg 1,497,299 650,392 9,426 11,916 Baden . . 704,058 1,131,639 5,563 26,132 Hesse . 746,201 341,570 7,368 24,486 Mecklenburg-Schwerin 597,268 8,182 487 1,763 Saxe-Weimar 347,144 14,158 361 1,188 Mecklenburg-Strelitz 100,568 1,612 62 331 Oldenburg . 309,510 86,920 1,334 1,359 Brunswick . 436,976 24,175 1,271 1,824 Saxe-Meiningen 244,810 4,170 395 1,351 Saxe-Altenburg . 189,885 4,723 2o6 99 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha . 225,074 3,330 515 6o8 Anhalt 301,953 11,699 794 1,6o5 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 79,593 1,110 27 166 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 92,298 676 37 48 Waldeck 55,285 1,831 164 637 Reuss-Greiz 66,86o 1,043 444 48 Reuss-Sch1eiz 135,958 2,579 466 178 Schaumburg-Lippe . 41,908 785 177 257 Lippe . 132,7o8 5,157 205 879 Lubeck 93,671 2,190 213 670 Bremen 208,815 13,506 876 1,409 Hamburg . 712,338 30,903 3,149 17,949 Alsace-Lorraine 372,078 1,310,450 4,301 32,379 L Total . 35,231,104 20,327,913 203,678 586,948 L the eighteen minor states the number of Roman Catholics is only from 0.3 to 3.3 % of the population. From the above table little can be inferred as to the geographical distribution of the two chief confessions.

On this point it must be See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

North of Munster, Roman Catholicism is still prevalent in the territory of the former bishopric of Osnabruck. In the east, East Prussia (See also:

• ERMELAND, or ERMLAND (Varmia)

The Oberkirchenrat retains the right of supreme management. The ecclesiastical affairs of the separate provinces are directed by consistorial boards. The parishes (Pfarreien) are grouped into dioceses (See also:

• SPRENGEL, KURT (1766-1833)

It is in the towns that the Jewish element is chiefly to be found. They belong principally to the mercantile class, and are to a very large extent dealers in money. Their wealth has grown Jews. to an extraordinary degree. They are increasingly numer- ous in Hamburg, Berlin, Frankfort-on-Main, Breslau, Konigsberg, Posen, Cologne, Nuremberg and Furth. As a rule their numbers are proportionately greater in Prussia than elsewhere within the empire. But, since 1871, the Jewish population of Germany shows a far smaller increase than that of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Education is general and compulsory throughout the empire, and all the states composing it have, with minor modifications, adopted the Prussian system providing for the establishment of elementary See also:

• SCHOOLS

Foremost among German academies is the Academy of Sciences (Akademie der Wissenschaften) in Berlin, founded in 1700 on See also:

• LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM

The following figures will show the recent progress of German literary production, in so far as published works are concerned: Unable to Read or Write. "ears. Nu — Number of Recruits. Total. Per loco Recruits. 1875-1876 139,855 3311 23'7 188o-1881 151,18o 2406 15'9 1885-1886 152,933 1657 1o•8 1890-1891 193,318 1035 5'4 1895-1896 250,287 374 1.5 1898-1899 252,382 173 0.7 1900-1901 253,000 131 0.45 Of the above 131 illiterates in 1900-1901, 114 were in East and West Prussia, Posen and Silesia. Universities and Higher Technical Schools.—Germany owes its large number of universities, and its widely diffused higher education to its former subdivision into many separate states. Only a few of the universities date their existence from the Igth century; the majority of them are very much older. Each of the larger provinces, except Posen, has at least one university, the entire number being 21. All have four faculties except Munster, which has no See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

and Foundation. Teachers. Theology. ? Law. Medicine. See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

. 1665 121 35 271 239 48o 1025 Konigsberg 1544 152 68 317 218 502 1105 Leipzig . . . 1409 234 303 '1013 6o6 2419 4341 See also:

• MARBURG
• MARBURG, COLLOQUY OF (Marburger Religionsgesprach)

Among the remaining higher technical schools may be mentioned the three mining academies of Berlin, See also:

• CLAUSTHAL, or KLAUSTIIAL

The picture galleries of Dresden, Munich and Cassel still See also:

• RIVAL

(P. A. A.) Army.—The system of the " nation in arms " owes its existence to the reforms in the Prussian army that followed Jena. The " nation in arms " itself was the product of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, but it was in Prussia that was seen the systematization and the economical and effective application of the immense forces of which the revolutionary period had demonstrated the existence (see also ARMY; See also:

• CONSCRIPTION (from Lat. con-, together, and scribere, to write)

35,8o2 Struck off . . 86oVoluntarily enlisted in the army and navy, on or before attaining service age . . 57,739 Assigned as recruits to the navy . . 10,374 Put back, &c. . . 684,193 788,968 Available as army recruits, See also:

• FIT

The men serve in the active army and army reserve for seven years, of which two years (three in the case of See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

6 in., that of the non-commissioned officers 5 ft. 62 in., and that of the one-year volunteers 5 ft. 91 in. A much greater proportion of the country recruits were accepted as " fit " than of those coming from the towns. Voluntary enlistments of men who desired to become non-commissioned officers were most frequent in the provinces of the old Prussian monarchy, but in Berlin itself and in Westphalia the enlistments See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

12 battalions communication troops. 23 train battalions, &c. The addition of about 25,000 officers and 85,000 non-commissioned officers, one-year men, &c., brings the peace footing of the German army in 1910 to a total of about 615,000 of all ranks. As for war, the total fighting strength of the German nation (including the navy) has been placed at as high a figure as 11,000,000, Of these 7,000,000 have received little or no training, owing to medical unfitness, See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

Behind these forces there would shortly become available for secondary operations about 46o battalions of the 1st ban Landwehr, and 200 squadrons and about 220 batteries of the reserve and Landwehr. In addition, each would leave behind See also:

• DEPOT (from the Fr. depot, Lat. depositum, laid down; the French accent marks are usually dispensed with in English)

The number of officers on the active list is about 25,000. The under-officers number about 84,000. The German army is organized in twenty-three army corps, stationed and recruited in the various provinces and states as follows: Guard, Berlin (general recruiting) ; I. Konigsberg (East Prussia) ; II. Stettin (Pomerania); III. Berlin (Brandenburg); IV. Magdeburg (Prussian Saxony); V. Posen (Poland and part of Silesia); VI. Breslau (Silesia); VII. Munster (Westphalia); VIII. Coblenz (Rhineland) ; IX. Altona (Hanse Towns and Schleswig-Holstein) ; X.

Hanover (Hanover) ; XI. Cassel (Hesse-Cassel) ; XII. Dresden (Saxony); XIII. Stuttgart (Wurttemberg); XIV. Karlsruhe (Baden); XV. Strassburg (Alsace); XVI. Metz (Lorraine); XVII, Danzig (West Prussia) ; XVIII. Frankfurt-am-Main (Hesse Darmstadt, Main country); XIX. Leipzig (Saxony); I. Bavarian Corps, Munich; II. Bavarian Corps, Wurzburg; III. Bavarian Corps, Nuremberg.

The formation of a XX. army corps out of the extra division of the XIV. corps at Colmar in Alsace, with the addition of two regiments from Westphalia and drafts of the XV. and XVI. corps, was announced in 1908 as the final step of the See also:

• PROGRAMME, or PROGRAM

The battalion has always four companies, each, at war strength, 250 strong. The armament of the infantry is the model 1898 See also:

• MAGAZINE

Other branches represented in Great Britain by the Royal Engineers are known in Germany by the title " communication troops," and comprise railway, telegraph and airship and See also:

• BALLOON

The.military expenditure of Germany, according to a comparative table furnished to the House of See also:

• COMMONS

On the Russian frontier Konigsberg, Danzig, Thorn, Posen, See also:

• GLOGAU

In 1864 Prussia, in annexing Holstein, obtained possession of the excellent port of Kiel, which has since been strongly fortified. From the time of the formation of the North German Confederation the navy has belonged to the common federal interest. Since 1st October 1867 all its ships have carried the same flag, of the national colours—black, white, red, with the Prussian See also:

• EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila)

Armoured cruisers . . . 9 effective, approaching completion. Protected cruisers . . 31 effective,2 approaching completion. See also:

• TORPEDO

The active naval personnel was, in 1906, 2631 officers (including engineers, marines, medical, &c.) and 51,138 under-officers and men, total 53,769. In addition, there is a reserve of more than 100,000 officers and men. (P. A. A.) Finance.—The imperial See also:

• BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as bulga, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. bougette, from which the Eng. form is derived)

In 1871 the system accepted was that the imperial budget should be financed substantially by its reliance on the revenue from what were the obvious imperial resources—customs and excise duties, stamp duties, post and telegraph receipts, and among minor sources the receipts from the Alsace-Lorraine railways. But it was also provided that, for the purpose of deficits, the states should, in addition, if required by the imperial minister of finance, contribute their quotas according to population—Matrikular Beitrage. It was not expected that these would become chronic, but in a few years, and emphatically by the early 'eighties, they were found to be an essential part of the financial system, owing to regular deficits. It had been intended that, in return for the Matrikular Beitrage, regular assignments (Uberweisungen) should be returned to the states, in relief of their own taxation, which would practically wipe out the contribution; but instead of these the Uberweisungen were considerably less. Certain reorganizations were made in 1887 and 1902, but the excess of the Matrikular Beitrage over the Uberweisungen continued; the figures in 1905 and 1908 being as follows (in millions of marks) Matrikular- Uberweisungen. Excess. Beitrage. 1905 213 189 24 1908 346 195 150 These figures show how natural it was to desire to relieve the Imperial Bank. The Imperial Bank (Reichsbank) ranks far above states by increasing the direct imperial revenue. Meanwhile, in spite of the " matricular contributions," the calls on imperial finance had steadily increased, and up to 1908 were continually met to a large extent by loans, involving a continual growth of the imperial debt, which in 1907 amounted to 3643 millions of marks. The imperial budget, like that of most European nations, is divided into two portions, the ordinary and the extraordinary; and the increase under both heads (especially for army and navy) became a recurrent See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

Revenue. Raised by See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

If the net profits do not reach 31%, the balance must be made good from the reserve. Private See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

1,373,482 2,353,951 1903 6 216,000 60,131 1,394,336 2,365,256 1904 6 216,000 64,385 1,433,421 2,378,845 See also:

• ASSETS (from the O. Nor. Fr. assetz, mod. Fr. asset, " enough")

The average rate per See also:

• OUNCE

£20,000,000. The system is decimal; thus too pfennige = r mark, moo pfennige = BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Cotta, Deutschlands Baden (2 vols., 1853) ; H. A. the gold krone (or crown), and Id. English amounts roughly to 8 See also:

• DANIEL
• DANIEL (DANIL)
• DANIEL, BOOK
• DANIEL, GABRIEL (1649-1728)

The private banks Konversations-Lexikon (19o2 seqq.) ; See also:

• BROCKHAUS, FRIEDRICH ARNOLD (1772-1823)

See also:

• KAYSER, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH EMANUEL (1845- )

Palaeolithic Transition Period (Solutri).—More highly developed forms are found when the See also:

• MAMMOTH
• MAMMOTH (0. Russ. mammot, mod. mamant; the Tatar word mama, earth, from which it is supposed to be derived, is not known to exist)

Traces of Neolithic settlements have been found chiefly in the neighbourhood of Worms, in the Main district and in Thuringia. These dwellings are usually holes in the ground, and presumably had thatched See also:

• ROOFS