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BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)
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See also:BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern) , a See also:kingdom of See also:southern See also:Germany, next to See also:Prussia the largest See also:state of the See also:German See also:empire in See also:area and See also:population. It consists of two distinct and unequal portions, Bavaria proper, and the See also:Palatinate of the See also:Rhine, which See also:lie from 25 to 40 M. W. apart and are separated by the See also:grand-duchies of See also:Baden and See also:Hesse. See also:Physical Features.—Bavaria proper is bounded on the S. by the See also:Alps, on the N.E., towards Bohemia, by a See also:long range of mountains known as the Bohmerwald, on the N. by the See also:Fichtelgebirge and the See also:Frankenwald, which See also:separate it from the kingdom of See also:Saxony, the principality of See also:Reuss, the duchies of See also:Saxe-See also:Coburg-See also:Gotha and See also:Meiningen and the Prussian See also:province of Hesse-See also:Cassel. The ranges seldom exceed the height of 3000 or 4000 ft.; but the ridges in the See also:south, towards See also:Tirol, frequently attain an See also:elevation of goon or lo,000 ft. On the W. Bavaria is bounded by See also:Wurttemberg, Baden and Hesse-See also:Darmstadt. The See also:country mainly belongs to the basins of the See also:Danube and the See also:Main; by far the greater portion being drained by the former See also:river, which, entering from See also:Swabia as a navigable stream, traverses the entire breadth of the kingdom, with a winding course of 200 m., and receives in its passage the I11er, the See also:Lech, the See also:Isar and the See also:Inn from the south, and the Naab, the See also:Altmuhl and the Wornitz from the See also:north. The Inn is navigable before it enters Bavarian territory, and afterwards receives the Salzach, a large river flowing from Upper See also:Austria. The Isar does not become navigable till it has passed See also:Munich; and the Lech is a stream of a similar See also:size. The Main traverses the See also:northern regions, or Upper and See also:Lower See also:Franconia, with a very winding course and greatly facilitates the See also:trade of the provinces. The See also:district watered by the southern tributaries of the Danube consists for the most See also:part of an extensive See also:plateau, with a mean elevation of 2390 ft. In the mountainous parts of the country there are numerous lakes and in the lower portions considerable stretches of marshy ground. The smaller or western portion, the Palatinate, is bounded on the E. by the Rhine, which divides it from the grand-duchy of Baden, on the S. by See also:Alsace, and on the W. and N. by a lofty range of hills, the Haardtgebirge, which separate it from See also:Lorraine and the Prussian Rhine province. The See also:climate of Bavaria differs greatly according to the See also:character of the region, being See also:cold in the vicinity of Tirol but warm in the plains adjoining the Danube and the Main. On the whole, the temperature is in the See also:winter months considerably colder than that of See also:England, and a See also:good See also:deal hotter during summer and autumn. Area and Population.—Bavaria proper, or the eastern portion,543 contains an area of 26,998 sq. m., and the Palatinate or western, 2288 sq. m., making the whole extent of the kingdom about 29,286 sq. m. The See also:total population, according to the See also:census of 1905, was 6,512,824. Almost a See also:quarter of the inhabitants live in towns, of which Munich and See also:Nuremberg have populations exceeding roo,000, See also:Augsburg, See also:Wurzburg, See also:Furth and See also:Ludwigshafen between 50,000 and 1oo,000, while twenty-six other towns number from ro,000 to 50,000 inhabitants. Ethnographically, the Bavarians belong to various See also:ancient tribes; Germanized Slays in the north-See also:east, Swabians and See also:Franks in the centre, Franks towards the See also:west, and, in the Palatinate, See also:Walloons. Politically, the country is divided into eight provinces, as follows: Provinces. See also:Capital. Pop. of Province Area in in 1905. sq. m. Upper Bavaria Munich . . I,410,763 6,456
Lower Bavaria. . See also:Landshut 706,345 4,152
Upper Palatinate . See also:Regensburg . 573,476 3,728
Upper Franconia . See also:Bayreuth 637,239 2,702
See also:Middle Franconia See also:Ansbach . . 868,072 2,925
Lower Franconia . Wurzburg 680,769 3,243
Swabia . . Augsburg 750,880 3,792
The Palatinate See also:Spires . . 885,28o 2,288
Total . . 6,512,824 29,286
See also:Religion.—The See also:majority of the inhabitants (about 70%) are See also:Roman Catholics. The See also:Protestant-Evangelical See also: The districts of Lower Bavaria, Upper Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate are almost wholly Roman See also:Catholic, while in the Rhine Palatinate, Upper Franconia, and especially Middle Franconia, the preponderance is on the See also:side of the Protestants. The exercise of religious See also:worship in Bavaria is altogether See also:free. The Protestants have the same See also:civil rights as the Roman Catholics, and the See also:sovereign may be either Roman Catholic or Protestant. Of the Roman Catholic Church the heads are the two archbishops of Munich-See also:Freising and See also:Bamberg, and the six bishops of See also:Eichstatt, Spires, Wurzburg, Augsburg, Regensburg and See also:Passau, of whom the first three are suffragans of Bamberg. The " Old Catholic " party, under the See also:bishop of See also:Bonn, has failed, despite its See also:early successes, to take deep See also:root in the country. Among the Protestants the highest authority is the See also:general See also:consistory of Munich. The See also:numbers of the different religions in 290o were as follows:—Roman Catholics, 4,357,133; Protestants, 1,749,206; Jews, 54,928. See also:Education.—Bavaria, formerly backward in education, has recently done much in this connexion. The state has two Roman Catholic See also:universities, Munich and Wurzburg, and a Lutheran, See also:Erlangen; in Munich there are a See also:polytechnic, an See also:academy of sciences and an academy of See also:art. See also:Agriculture.—Of the total See also:surface of Bavaria about one-See also:half is under cultivation, one-third See also:forest, and the remaining See also:sixth mostly pasture. The level country, including both Lower Bavaria (extending northwards to the Danube) and the western and middle parts of Franconia, is productive of See also:rye, oats, See also:wheat, See also:barley and See also:millet, and also of See also:hemp, See also:flax, See also:madder and See also:fruit and vines. The last are grown chiefly in the vicinity of the See also:Lake of See also:Constance, on the See also:banks of the Main, in the lower part of its course, and in the Palatinate of the Rhine. Hops are extensively grown in central Franconia; See also:tobacco (the best in Germany) See also:round Nuremberg and in the Palatinate, which also largely produces the See also:sugar-See also:beet. Potatoes are cultivated in all the provinces: but especially in the Palatinate and in the See also:Spessart district, which lies in the north-west within a See also:curve of the Main. The southern divisions of Swabia and Upper Bavaria, where pasture-See also:land predominates, See also:form a See also:cattle-breeding district and the See also:dairy produce is extensive. Here also horses are bred in large numbers. The extent of forest forms nearly a third of the total area of Bavaria. This is owing to various causes: the amount of hilly and mountainous country, the thinness of the population and the See also:necessity of keeping a given extent of ground under See also:wood for the See also:supply of See also:fuel. More than a third of the forests are public See also:property and furnish a considerable addition to the See also:revenue. They are principally situated in the provinces of Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria and the Palatinate of the Rhine. The forests are well stocked with See also:game, See also:deer, See also:chamois (in the Alps), See also:wild boars, capercailzic, See also:grouse, pheasants, &c. being plentiful. The greater proportion of the land throughout the kingdom is in the hands of See also:peasant proprietors, the extent of the separate holdings differing very much in different districts. The largest peasant property may be about 170 acres, and the smallest, except in the Palatinate, about 50. Minerals.—The See also:chief See also:mineral deposits in Bavaria are See also:coal, See also:iron ore, See also:graphite and See also:salt. The coal mines lie principally in the districts of See also:Amberg, See also:Kissingen, Steben, Munich and the Rhine Palatinate. Salt is obtained on a large See also:scale partly from brine springs and partly from mines, the See also:principal centres being See also:Halle, See also:Berchtesgaden, See also:Traunstein and See also:Rosenheim. The See also:government See also:monopoly which had long existed was abolished in 1867 and free trade was established in salt between the members of the customs-See also:union. Of quicksilver there are several mines, chiefly in the Palatinate of the Rhine; and small quantities of See also:copper, See also:manganese and See also:cobalt are obtained. There are numerous quarries of excellent See also:marble, See also:alabaster, See also:gypsum and See also:building See also: See also:Brewing forms an important industry, the best-known breweries being those of Munich, Nuremberg, Erlangen and See also:Kulmbach. Other articles of manufacture are See also:leather, tobacco, porcelain, See also:cement, See also:spirits, See also:lead pencils (Nuremberg), See also:plate-glass, sugar, matches, See also:aniline dyes, See also:straw hats and baskets. The See also:commerce of Bavaria is very considerable. The exports consist chiefly of See also:corn, potatoes, hops, See also:beer, See also:wine, cloth, See also:cotton goods, glass, fancy wares, toys, cattle, pigs and vegetables. The seat of the See also:hop-trade is Nuremberg; of See also:wool, Augsburg. The imports comprise sugar, tobacco, See also:cocoa, See also:coffee, See also:oils, See also:silk and See also:pig iron. Communications.—Trade is served by an excellent railway See also:system and there are steamboat services on the navigable See also:rivers, to the east by way of Passau on the Danube, and to the west by Ludwigshafen. The high roads of Bavaria, many of which are military roads laid out at the beginning of the 19th See also:century, extend in all over about Io,000 m. There were 4377 M. of See also:railways in operation in 1904, of which about 3800 were in the hands of the state, and about 440 M. belonged to the private system of the Palatinate. The principal See also:canal is the Ludwigs-'canal, which connects the Rhine with the Danube, extending from Bamberg on the See also:Regnitz to Dietfurt on the Altmtihl. There is an extensive network of See also:telegraph and See also:telephone lines. All behng to the government See also:post See also:office, which forms an administrative system See also:independent of the imperial German post office. Constitution and See also:Administration.—By the treaty of See also:Versailles (23rd See also:November 187o) and the imperial constitution of the 16thof See also:April 1871, Bavaria was incorporated with the German empire, reserving, however, certain separate privileges (Sonderrechte) in respect of the administration of the See also:army, the railways and the posts, the See also:excise duties on beer, the rights of See also:domicile and the See also:insurance of real See also:estate. The See also: Qualifications for the general body of See also:electors are full age of twenty-five years, Bavarian citizenship of one See also:year at least, and See also:discharge of all rates and taxes. Parliament must be assembled every three years, but as the See also:budget is taken every two years, it is regularly called together within that See also:period. No See also:laws affecting the liberty or property of the subject can be passed without the See also:sanction of parliament. Revenue.—The following is a fairly typical statement of the budget estimates (1902-1903), in marks (= 1 See also:shilling See also:sterling): Disbursements. Mks. Direct taxes 38,199,000 Civil See also:list . 5,402,475 Customs and indirect State See also:debt . 51,323,200 taxes . 50,900,990 See also:Ministry of the State railways . 184,551,000 Royal house and Posts and tele- of See also:Foreign dept. . 688,398 graphs 41,665,100 Ministry of See also:justice . 20,615,299 Forests and agri- Ministry of interior. 30,055,338
cultural dues . 37,395,000 Public worship and
Imperial assign- education . 34,667,673
ments . 62,571,605 See also:Minister of See also:finance 6,696,78o
Contribution to See also:im-
perial See also:exchequer. 72,647,090
415,282,695 222,296,253
= 20,764,135 =£It,r14,813
The public debt amounts to about f95,000,000, of which over 75 % was incurred for railways.
Army.—The Bavarian army forms a separate portion of the army of the German empire, with a separate administration, but in time of See also:war is under the supreme command of the German
Receipts.
Mks.
See also:emperor. The regulations applicable to other sections of the whole imperial army are, however, observed. It consists, on a See also:peace footing, of three army See also:corps, 1st, and and 3rd Royal Bavarian (each of two divisions), the headquarters of which are in Munich, Nuremberg and Wurzburg respectively. The Bavarian army comprises sixty-seven battalions of See also:infantry, two battalions of rifles, ten regiments of See also:cavalry (two heavy, two See also:Ulan and six Chevauxlegers), a See also:squadron of mounted infantry (See also:Jager-zu-pfcrde), twelve See also: (P. A. A.) See also:HISTORY The earliest known inhabitants of the district afterwards called Bavaria were a See also:people, probably of See also:Celtic extraction, who were subdued by the See also:Romans just before the opening of the See also:Christian era, when colonies were founded among them and their land was included in the province of See also:Raetia. During the 5th century it was ravaged by the troops of See also:Odoacer and, after being almost denuded of inhabitants, was occupied by tribes who, pushing along the valley of the Danube, settled there between A.O. 488 and 520. Many conjectures have been formed concerning the See also:race and origin of these people, who were certainly a new and cpmposite social aggregate. Most likely they were descendants of the See also:Marcomanni, Quadi and Narisci, tribes of the Suevic or Swabian race, with possibly a small intermixture, of See also:Gothic or Celtic elements. They were called Baioarii, Baiowarii, Bawarii or Baiuwarii, words derived most probably from Baja or Baya, corruptions of Bojer, and given to them because they came from Bojerland or Bohemia. Another but less probable explanation derives the name from a See also:combination of the old high German word uud.ra, meaning See also:league, and bai, a Gothic word for both. The Bavarians are first mentioned in a Frankish document of 520, and twenty years later Jordanes refers to them as lying east of the Swabians. Their country See also:bore some traces of Roman See also:influence, and its main boundaries were the Enna, the Danube, the Lech and the Alps; but its See also:complete See also:settlement was a See also:work of time. The Bavarians soon came under the dominion of the Franks, probably without a serious struggle; and were ruled from 555 to 788 by See also:dukes of the Agilolfing family, who were Frankish influence. possibly of Frankish descent. For a century and a ~' ~'
half a succession of dukes resisted the inroads of the Slays on their eastern frontier, and by the time of See also:Duke Theodo I., who died in 717, were completely independent of the feeble Frankish See also:kings. When See also: The 8th century witnessed in- See also:deed a See also:heathen reaction; but it was checked by the arrival in Bavaria about 734 of St See also:Boniface, who organized the Bavarian church and founded or restored bishoprics at See also:Salzburg, Freising, Regensburg and Passau. Tassilo III., who became duke of the Bavarians in 749, recognized the supremacy of the Frankish king Pippin the Short in 757, but soon afterwards refused to furnish a contribution to the war in See also:Aquitaine. Moreover, during the early years of the reign of See also:Charlemagne, Tassilo gave decisions in ecclesiastical and civil causes in his own name, refused to appear in the assemblies of the Franks, and in general acted as an independent ruler. His position as possessor of the Alpine passes, as an ally of the See also:Avars, and as son-in-law of the Lombard king See also:Desiderius, was so serious a menace to the Frankish kingdom that Charlemagne determined to crush him. The details of this contest are obscure. Tassilo appears to have done See also:homage in 781, and again in 787, probably owing to the presence of Frankish armies. But further trouble soon arose, and in 788 the duke was summoned to See also:Ingelheim, where on a See also:charge of treachery he was sentenced to See also:death. He was, however, pardoned by the king; and he then entered a monastery and formally renounced his duchy at See also:Frankfort in 794. The country was ruled by Gerold, a See also:brother-in-law of Charlemagne, till his death in a See also:battle with the Avars in 799, when its administration was entrusted to Frankish counts and assimilated with that of the See also:rest of the Carolingian empire, while its See also:condition was improved by the See also:measures taken by Charlemagne for the intellectual progress and material welfare of his realm. The Bavarians offered no resistance to the See also:change which thus abolished their dukedom; and their See also:incorporation with the Frankish dominions, due mainly to the unifying influence of the church, was already so complete that Charlemagne did not find it necessary to issue more than two capitularies dealing especially with Bavarian affairs. The history of Bavaria for the ensuing century is See also:bound up with that of the Carolingian empire. Given at the See also:partition of 817 to the king of the East Franks, Louis the German, union with it formed part of the larger territories which were See also:cam- confirmed to him in 843 by the treaty of See also:Verdun. lingian Louis made Regensburg the centre of his government, empire. and was active in improving the condition of Bavaria, and providing for its See also:security by numerous See also:campaigns against the Slays. When he divided his possessions in 865 it passed to his eldest son, See also:Carloman, who had already undertaken its government, and after his death in 88o it formed part of the extensive territories of the emperor Charles the See also:Fat. Its See also:defence was See also:left by this incompetent emperor to See also:Arnulf, an illegitimate son of Carloman, and it was mainly owing to the support of the Bavarians that Arnulf was able to take the field against Charles in 887, and to secure his own election as German king in the following year. Bavaria, which was the centre of the East Frankish kingdom, passed in 849 to Louis the See also:Child, during whose reign it was constantly ravaged by the Hungarians. The resistance to these inroads became gradually feebler, and it is said that on the 5th of See also:July 907 almost the whole of the Bavarian race perished in battle with these formidable enemies. For the defence of Bavaria the See also:mark of See also:Carinthia had been erected on the south-eastern frontier, and during the reign of Louis the Child this was ruled by Liutpold, See also:count of Scheyern, who possessed large domains in Bavaria. He was among those who See also:fell in the great fight of 907; but his son Arnulf, surnamed the See also:Bad, rallied the remnants of the race, drove back the Hungarians, and was chosen duke of the Bavarians in 911, when Bavaria and Carinthia were united under his See also:rule. Refusing to acknowledge the supremacy of the German king See also:Conrad I., he was unsuccessfully attacked by the latter, and in 920 was recognized as duke by Conrad's successor, See also: In 955 Henry was succeeded by his See also:young son Henry, surnamed the Quarrelsome, who in 974 was implicated in a See also:conspiracy against King Otto II. The See also:reason for this rising was that the king had granted the duchy of Swabia to Henry's enemy, Otto, a See also:grandson of the emperor Otto the Great, and had given the new Bavarian East Mark, afterwards known as Austria, to See also:Leopold I., count of See also:Babenberg. The revolt was, however, soon suppressed; but Henry, who on his See also:escape from See also:prison renewed his plots, was formally deposed in 976 when Bavaria was given to Otto, duke of Swabia. At the same time Carinthia was made into a separate duchy, the office of count palatine was restored, and the church was made dependent on the king instead of on the duke. Restored in 985, Henry proved himself a capable ruler by establishing See also:internal See also:order, issuing important laws and taking measures to reform the monasteries. His son and successor, who was chosen German king as Henry II. in 1002, gave Bavaria to his brother-in-law Henry of See also:Luxemburg; after whose death in 1026 it passed successively to Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III., and to another member of the family of Luxemburg, as Duke Henry VII. In 1061 the empress See also:Agnes, See also:mother of and regent for the German king Henry IV., entrusted the duchy to Otto of Nordheim, who was deposed by the king in 1070, when the duchy was granted to Count See also:Welf, a member of an influential Bavarian family. In consequence of his support of See also:Pope Greegory VII. in his See also:quarrel with Henry, Well lost but subsequently regained Bavaria; and was followed successively by his sons, Well II. in 1101, and Henry IX, in 1120, both of whom exercised considerable influence among the German princes. Henry was succeeded in 1126 by his son Henry X., called the Proud, who obtained the duchy of Saxony in 1137. Alarmed at this prince's power, King Conrad III. refused to allow two duchies to remain in the same hands; and, having declared Henry deposed, he bestowed Bavaria upon Leopold IV., See also:margrave of Austria. When Leopold died in 1141, the king retained the duchy himself; but it continued to be the See also:scene of considerable disorder, and in 1143 he entrusted it to Henry II., surnamed Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria. The struggle for its See also:possession continued until 1156, when King See also:Frederick I. in his See also:desire to restore peace to Germany persuaded Henry to give up Bavaria to Henry the See also:Lion, a son of Duke Henry the Proud. A new era of government set in when, in consequence of Henry being placed under the imperial See also:ban in 1180, the duchy was given by Frederick I. to Otto, a member of the old Bavarian Then to the family of Wittelsbach (q.v.), and a descendant of the ac hs/s- counts of Scheyern. During the years following the destruction of the Carolingian empire the See also:borders of Bavaria were continually changing, and for a lengthened period after 955 this See also:process was one of expansion. To the west the Lech still divided Bavaria from Swabia, but on three other sides the opportunities for See also:extension had been taken See also:advantage of, and the duchy embraced an area of considerable dimensions north of the Danube. During the later years of the rule of the Welfs, however, a contrary tendency had operated, and the extent of Bavaria had been reduced. The immense energies of Duke Henry the Lion had been devoted to his northern rather than his southern duchy, and when the dispute over the Bavarian succession was settled in 1156. the district between the See also:Enns and the Inn had been transferred to Austria. The increasing importance of the mark of See also:Styria, erected into a duchy in i18o; and the county of Tirol, had diminished both the actual and the relative strength of Bavaria, which was now deprived on almost all sides of opportunities for expansion. The neighbouring duchy of Carinthia, the great temporal possessions of the See also:archbishop of Salzburg, as well as a general tendency to See also:independence on the part of both clerical and See also:lay nobles, were additional forces of similar influence. When Otto of Wittelsbach was invested with Bavaria at See also:Altenburg in See also:September r18o the duchy was bounded by the Bohmerwald, the Inn, the Alps and the Lech; and the power of the duke was practically confined to his Rule of the extensive private domains aroundWittelsbachKelheim backs. ad', and See also:Straubing. Otto only enjoyed his new dignity for three years, and was succeeded in 1183 by his son Louis I., who took a leading part in German affairs during the earlier years of the reign of the emperor Frederick II., and was assassinated at Kelheim in September 1231. His son Otto II., called the Illustrious, was the next duke, and his See also:loyalty to the See also:Hohenstaufen caused him to be placed under the papal ban, and Bavaria to be laid under an See also:interdict. Like his father, Otto increased the area of his lands by purchases; and he had considerably strengthened his hold upon the duchy before he died in November 1253. The efforts of the dukes to increase their power and to give unity to the duchy had met with a See also:fair measure of success; but they were soon vitiated by partitions among different members of the family which for 25o years made the history of Bavaria little more than a jejune See also:chronicle of territorial divisions bringing war and weakness in Division their See also:train. The first of these divisions was made in duche duchy. 1255 between Louis II. and Henry I., the sons of Duke Otto II., who for two years after their father's death had ruled Bavaria jointly; and by it Louis obtained the western part of the duchy, afterwards called Upper Bavaria, and Henry secured eastern or Lower Bavaria. In the course of a long reign Louis, who was called the Stern, became the most powerful prince in southern Germany. He was the uncle and See also:guardian of See also:Conradin of Hohenstaufen, and when this prince was put to death in Italy in 1268, Louis and his brother Henry inherited the domains of the Hohenstaufen in Swabia and elsewhere. He supported See also:Rudolph, count of See also:Habsburg, in his efforts to secure the German throne in 1273, married the new king's daughter Mechtild, and aided him in campaigns in Bohemia and elsewhere. For some years after Louis' death in 1294 his sons Rudolph I. and Louis, afterwards the emperor Louis IV., ruled their duchy in See also:common; but as their relations were never harmonious a division of Upper Bavaria was made in 1310, by which Rudolph received the land east of the Isar together with the See also:town of Munich, and Louis the district between the Isar and the Lech. It was not long, however, before this arrangement led to war between the See also:brothers, the outcome of which was that in 1317, three years after he had been chosen German king, Louis compelled Rudolph to abdicate, and for twelve years ruled alone over the whole of Upper Bavaria. But in 1329 a See also:series of events induced him to conclude the treaty of See also:Pavia with Rudolph's sons, Rudolph and Rupert, to whom he transferred the Palatinate of the Rhine, which had been in the possession of the Wittelsbach family since 1214, and also a portion of Upper Bavaria north of the Danube, which was afterwards called the Upper Palatinate. At the same time it was decided that the electoral See also:vote should be exercised by the two lines alternately, and that in the event of either See also:branch of the family be-coming See also:extinct the surviving branch should inherit its possessions. Henry I. of Lower Bavaria spent most of his time in quarrels with his brother, with Ottakar II. of Bohemia and with various ecclesiastics. When he died in See also:February 1290 Lower Bavaria was ruled by his three sons, Otto III., Louis Bavaria. 
III. and See also:Stephen I. Louis died childless in 1296; Stephen left two sons at his death in 1310, namely, Henry II. and Otto IV., and Otto, who was king of See also:Hungary from 1305 to
German kingdom.
The duchy passes to the Welfs.
Area of Bavaria.
Upper Bavaria.
1308, died in 1312, leaving a son, Henry III. Lower Bavaria
was governed by these three princes until 1333, when Henry III.
died, followed in 1334 by his See also:cousin Otto; and as both died
without sons the whole of Lower Bavaria then passed to Henry II.
Dying in 1339, Henry left an only son, See also: All the six brothers exercised some authority in Bavaria; but three alone left issue, and of these the eldest, Louis, margrave of Brandenburg, died in 1361; and two years later was followed to the See also:grave by his only son Meinhard, who was childless, The two remaining brothers, Stephen II. and See also:Albert I., ruled over Bavaria-Landshut and Bavaria-Straubing respectively, and when Stephen died in 1375 his portion of Bavaria was governed jointly by his three sons. In 1392, when all the lines except those of Stephen and Albert had died out, an important partition took place, by which the greater part of the duchy was divided among Stephen's three sons, Stephen III., Frederick and John II., who founded respectively the lines of See also:Ingolstadt, Landshut and Munich. Albert's duchy of Bavaria-Straubing passed on his death in 1404 to his son See also: About 1417 he became involved in a violent quarrel with his cousin, Henry of Bavaria-Landshut, fell under both the papal and the imperial ban, and in 1439 was attacked by his son Louis the Lame. This prince, who had married a daughter of Frederick I. of See also:Hohenzollern, margrave of Brandenburg, was incensed at the favour shown by his father to an illegitimate See also:sou. Aided by Albert See also:Achilles, afterwards margrave of Brandenburg, he took the See also:elder Louis prisoner and compelled him to abdicate in 1443. When Louis the Lame died in 1445 his father came into the power of his implacable enemy, Henry of Bavaria-Landshut, and died in prison in 1447. The duchy of Bavaria-Ingolstadt passed to Henry, who had succeeded his father Frederick as duke of Bavaria-Landshut in 1393, and whose long reign was almost entirely occupied with family feuds. He died in July 1450, and was followed by his son, Louis IX. (called the See also:Rich), and about this time Bavaria began to recover some of its former importance. Louis IX. expelled the Jews from his duchy, did something for the security of traders, and improved both the administration of justice and the condition of the finances. In 1472 he founded the university of Ingolstadt, attempted to reform the monasteries, and was successful in a struggle with Albert Achilles of Brandenburg. On his death in See also:January 1479 he was succeeded by his son See also:George, also called the Rich; and when George, a faithful adherent of the German king See also:Maximilian I., died without sons in See also:December 1503, a war See also:broke out for the possession of his duchy. Bavaria-Munich passed on the death of John II. in 1397 to his sons Ernest and William III., but they only obtained possession of their lands after a struggle with Stephen of Bavaria-Ingolstadt. Both brothers wore then engaged in warfare with the other branches of the family and with the citizens of Munich. William; a loyal servant of the emperor See also:Sigismund, died in 1435, leaving an only son, Adolf, who died five years later; and Ernest, distinguished for his bodily strength, died in 1438. In 1440 the whole of Bavaria-Munich came to Ernest's son Albert, who had been estranged from his father owing to his union with the unfortunate Agnes See also:Bernauer (q.v.). Albert, whose attempts to reform the monasteries earned for him the surname of Pious, was almose elected king of Bohemia in 1440. He died in 1460, leaving five sons, the two elder of whom, John IV. and Sigismund, reigned in common until the death of John in 1463. The third brother, Albert, who had been educated for the church, joined his brother in 1465, and when Sigismund abdicated two years later became See also:sole ruler in spite of the claims of his two younger brothers. Albert, who was called the See also:Wise, added the district of See also:Abensberg to his possessions, and in 1504 became involved in the war which broke out for the possession of Bavaria-Landshut on the war over death of George the Rich. Albert's See also:rival was George's the suc-
son-in-law, Rupert, formerly bishop of Freising, and son cession to of See also: In spite of the See also:decree of 1506 William was compelled in 1516, after a violent quarrel, to See also: The succeeding duke was Albert's son, William V. (called the Pious), who was educated by the Jesuits and was keenly attached to their tenets. He secured the archbishopric of Cologne for his brother Ernest in 1583, and this dignity remained in the possession of the family for nearly 200 years. In 1597 he abdicated in favour of his son Maximilian I., BAVARIA Reign of and retired into a monastery, where he died in 1626. maxi- mllian I. Maximilian found the duchy encumbered with debt and and the filled with disorder, but ten years of his vigorous rule See also:Thirty effected a remarkable change. The finances and the Years' war. judicial system were reorganized,a class of civil servants and a See also:national See also:militia founded,and several smalldistricts were brought under the duke's authority. The result was a unity and order in the duchy which enabled Maximilian to See also:play an important part in the Thirty Years' War; during the earlier years of which he was so successful as to acquire the Upper Palatinate and the electoral dignity which had been enjoyed since 1356 by the elder branch of the Wittelsbach family. In spite of subsequent reverses these gains were retained by Maximilian at the peace of See also:Westphalia in 1648. During the later years of this war Bavaria, especially the northern part, suffered severely. In 1632 it was invaded by the Swedes, and, when Maximilian violated the treaty of See also:Ulm in 1647, was ravaged by the See also:French and the Swedes. After repairing this damage to some extent, the elector died at Ingolstadt in September 1651, leaving his duchy much stronger than he had found it. The recovery of the Upper Palatinate made Bavaria compact; the acquisition of the electoral vote made it influential; and the duchy was able to play a part in See also:European politics which intestine strife had rendered impossible for the past four See also:hundred years. (A. W. H.*) Whatever lustre the See also:international position won by Maximilian I. might add to the ducal house, on Bavaria itself its effect during the next two centuries was more dubious. Maxi-Bofeglnninmodgern milia.n's son, Ferdinand Maria (1651–1679), who was a period. See also:minor when he succeeded, did much indeed to repair the wounds caused by the Thirty Years' War, encouraging agriculture and See also:industries, and building or restoring numerous churches and monasteries. In 1669, moreover, he again called a See also:meeting of the diet, which had been suspended since 1612. His good work, however, was largely undone by his son Maximilian II. See also:Emmanuel (1679–1726), whose far-reaching ambition set him warring against the See also:Turks and, on the side of France, in the great struggle of the See also:Spanish succession. He shared in the defeat at See also:Hochstadt on the 13th of See also:August 1704; his dominions were temporarily partitioned between Austria and the elector palatine, and only restored to him, harried and exhausted, at the peace of Baden in 1714. Untaught by Maximilian Emmanuel's experience, his son, Charles Albert (1726–1745) devoted all his energies to increasing the European See also:prestige and power of his house. The death of the emperor Charles VI. was his opportunity; he disputed the validity of the Pragmatic Sanction which secured the Habsburg succession to Maria See also:Theresa, allied himself with France, conquered Upper Austria, was crowned king of Bohemia at See also:Prague and, in 1742, emperor at Frankfcrt. The See also:price he had to pay, however, was the occupation of Bavaria itself by See also:Austrian troops; and, though the invasion of Bohemia in 1744 by Frederick II. of Prussia enabled him to return to Munich, at his death on the loth of January 1745 it was left to his successor to make what terms he could for the recovery of his dominions. Maximilian III. See also:Joseph (1745–1777), by the peace of Ftissen signed on the 22nd of April 1745, obtained the restitution of his dominions in return for a formal See also:acknowledgment of the Pragmatic Sanction. He was a See also:man of enlightenment, did much to encourage agri-culture, industries and the exploitation of the mineral See also:wealth of the country, founded the Academy of Sciences at Munich, and abolished the Jesuit censorship of the press. At his death, without issue, on the 3oth of December 1777, the Bavarian See also:line of the Wittelsbachs became extinct, and the succession passed to Charles See also:Theodore, the elector palatine. After a separation of four and a half centuries, the Palatinate, to which the duchies of See also:Julich and See also:Berg had been added, was thus Re-nhak See also:ion' ofthe reunited with Bavaria. So great an accession of atlaate, strength to a neighbouring state, whose ambition she had so recently had just reason to fear, was intolerable to Austria, which laid claim to a number of lordships--forming one-third of the whole Bavarian inheritance—as lapsed fiefs of the Bohemian, Austrian, and imperial crowns. These were at once occupied by Austrian troops, with the See also:secret consent of Charles Theodore himself, who was without legitimate heirs, and wished to obtain from the emperor the elevation of his natural See also:children to the status of princes of the Empire. The protests of the next heir, Charles, duke of See also:Zweibrucken (Deux-Ponts), supported by the king of Prussia, led to the war of Bavarian succession. By the peace of See also:Teschen (May 13th, 1779) the Inn quarter was ceded to Austria, and the succession secured to Charles of Zweibrucken, For Bavaria itself Charles Theodore did less than nothing. He See also:felt himself a foreigner among foreigners, and his favourite See also:scheme, the subject of endless intrigues with the Austrian See also:cabinet and the immediate cause of Frederick II.'s League of Princes (Fiirstenbund) of 1785, was to See also:exchange Bavaria for the Austrian See also:Netherlands and the title of king of See also:Burgundy. For the rest, the enlightened internal policy of his predecessor was abandoned. The funds of the suppressed order of Jesus, which Maximilian Joseph had destined for the reform of the educational system of the country, were used to endow a province of the knights of St John of See also:Jerusalem, for the purpose of combating the enemies of the faith. The government was inspired by the narrowest clericalism, which culminated in the See also:attempt to withdraw the Bavarian bishops from the See also:jurisdiction of the great German metropolitans and place them directly under that of'the pope. On the See also:eve of the Revolution the intellectual and social condition of Bavaria remained that of the middle ages. In 1792 the revolutionary armies overran the Palatinate; in 1795 the French, under See also:Moreau, invaded Bavaria itself, advanced to Munich—where they were received with joy by the long-suppressed Liberals—and laid See also:siege to Ingolstadt. Charles Theodore, who had done nothing to prevent or to resist the invasion, fled to Saxony, leaving a regency, the members of which signed a See also:convention with Moreau, by which he granted an See also:armistice in return for a heavy contribution (September 7th, 1796). Immediately afterwards he was forced to retire. Between the French and the Austrians, Bavaria was now in an evil See also:case. Before the death of Charles Theodore (February 16th, 1799) the Austrians had again occupied the country, preparatory to renewing the war with France. Maximilian IV. Joseph (of Zweibrucken), the new elector, succeeded to a difficult See also:inheritance. Though his own sympathies, and those of his all-powerful minister, Max Josef von See also:Montgelas (q.v.), were, if anything, French rather than Austrian, the state of the Bavarian finances, and the fact that the Bavarian troops were scattered and disorganized, placed him helpless in the hands of Austria; on the 2nd of December 1800 the Bavarian arms were involved in the Austrian defeat at Hohenlinden, and Moreau once more occupied Munich. By the treaty of See also:Luneville (February 9th, 1801) Bavaria lost the Palatinate and the duchies of Zweibrucken and Julich. In view of the scarcely disguised ambitions and intrigues of the Austrian court, Montgelas now believed that the interests of Bavaria lay in a See also:frank See also:alliance with the French re- French public; he succeeded in overcoming the reluctance of m. Maximilian Joseph; and, on the 24th of August, a separate treaty of peace and alliance with France was signed at See also:Paris. By the third See also:article of this the First See also:Consul undertook to see that the See also:compensation promised under the 7th article The revolutionary wars. of the treaty of Luneville for the territory ceded on the left See also:bank of the Rhine, should be carried out at the expense of the Empire in the manner most agreeable to Bavaria (de See also:Martens, Recueil, vol. vii. p. 365). In 1803, accordingly, in the territorial re-arrangements consequent on See also:Napoleon's suppression of the ecclesiastical states, and of many free cities of the Empire, Bavaria received the bishoprics of Wurzburg, Bamberg, Augsburg and Freisingen, part of that of Passau, the territories of twelve abbeys, and seventeen cities and villages, the whole forming a compact territory which more than compensated for the loss of her outlying provinces on the Rhine). Montgelas' ambition was now to raise Bavaria to the See also:rank of a first-See also:rate power, and he pursued this See also:object during the See also:Napoleonic See also:epoch with consummate skill, allowing fully for the preponderance of France—so long as it lasted—but never permitting Bavaria to sink, like so many of the states of the See also:confederation of the Rhine, into a See also:mere French dependency. In the war of 1805, in accordance with a treaty of alliance signed at Wurzburg on the 23rd of September, Bavarian troops, for the first time since Charles VII., fought side by side with the French, and by the treaty of See also:Pressburg, signed on the 26th of December, the principality of Eichstadt, the margraviate of Burgau, the lordship of See also:Vorarlberg, the countships of Hohenems and Konigsegg-Rothenfels, the lordships of Argen and Tetnang, and the city of See also:Lindau with its territory were to be added to Bavaria. On the other See also:hand Wurzburg, obtained in 1803, was to be ceded by Bavaria to the elector of Salzburg in exchange for Tirol. By the 1st article of the treaty the emperor acknowledged the See also:assumption by the elector of the title of king, as Maximilian I2 The price which Maximilian had reluctantly to pay for this accession of dignity was the See also:marriage of his daughter See also:Augusta with See also:Eugene See also:Beauharnais. For the internal constitution of Bavaria also the French alliance had noteworthy consequences. Maximilian himself was an " enlightened " prince of the 18th-century type, whose tolerant principles had already grievously offended his clerical subjects; Montgelas was a See also:firm believer in drastic reform " from above," and, in 1803, had discussed with the rump of the old estates the question of reforms. But the revolutionary changes introduced by the constitution proclaimed on the 1st of May 18o8 were due to the direct influence of Napoleon. A clean sweep was made of the See also:medieval polity surviving in the somnolent See also:local diets and corporations. In place of the old system of privileges and exemptions were set equality before the law, universal liability to See also:taxation, abolition of See also:serfdom, security of person and property, liberty of See also:conscience and of the press. A representative assembly was created on paper, based on a narrow See also:franchise and with very limited See also:powers, but was never summoned. In 1809 Bavaria was again engaged in war with Austria on the side of France, and by the treaty signed at Paris on the 28th of February 1810 ceded southern Tirol to Italy and some small districts to Wurttemberg, receiving as compensation parts of Salzburg, the quarters of the Inn and.Hausruck and the principalities of Bayreuth and Regensburg. So far the policy of Montgelas had been brilliantly successful; but the See also:star of Napoleon had now reached its See also:zenith, and already the astute opportunist had noted the signs of the coming change. The events of 1812 followed; in 1813 Bavaria was summoned to join the alliance against Napoleon, the demand being passionately backed by the crown prince Louis and by See also:Marshal See also:Wrede; on Treaty of the 8th of October was signed the treaty of Ried, by tried. which Bavaria threw in her See also:lot with the See also:Allies. Mont- gelas announced to the French See also:ambassador that he had been compelled temporarily to See also:bow before the See also:storm, adding " Bavaria has need of France." (For Bavaria's share in the war see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.) Immediately after the first peace of Paris (1814), Bavaria ceded .to Austria Tirol and Vorarlberg; by the See also:congress of 1 See Reds de la deputation de 1'empire .. du 25 five. 18o3, &c., § II. vol. vii. p. 453 of G. F. de Martens, Recueil See also:des Trades, &c. (Gottingue, 1831). 2 See also:Text in de Martens' Recueil, viii. p. 388.See also:Vienna it was decided that she was to add to these the greater part of Salzburg and the quarters of the Inn and Hausriick, receiving as compensation, besides Wurzburg and Aschaffenburg, the Palatinate on the left bank of the Ketadons Rhine and certain districts of Hesse and of the former Auld Austria. abbacy of See also:Fulda. But with the collapse of France the old fear and See also:jealousy of Austria had revived in full force, and Bavaria only agreed to these cessions (treaty of Munich, April 16th, 1816) on Austria promising that, in the event of the powers ignoring her claim to the Baden succession in favour of that of the line of the counts of Hochberg, she should receive also the Palatinate on the right bank of the Rhine. The question was thus left open, the tension between the two powers remained extreme, and war was only averted by the authority of the Grand Alliance. At the congress of See also:Aix (1818) the question of the Baden succession was settled in favour of the Hochberg line, without the compensation stipulated for in the treaty of Munich; and by the treaty of Frankfort, signed on behalf of the four great powers on the 20th of July 1819, the territorial questions at issue between Bavaria and Austria were settled, in spite of the protests of the former, in the general sense of the arrangement made at Vienna. A small See also:strip of territory was added, to connect Bavaria with the Palatinate, and Bavarian troops were to See also:garrison the federal fortress of See also:Mainz. Meanwhile, on the 1st of February 1817, Montgelas had been dismissed; and Bavaria had entered on a new era of constitutional reform. This implied no See also:breach with the European policy of the fallen minister. In the new German confederation Bavaria had assumed the role of de-See also:fender of the smaller states against the ambitions of Austria and Prussia, and Montgelas had dreamed of a Bavarian See also:hegemony in South Germany similar to that of Prussia in the north. It was to obtain popular support for this policy and for the Bavarian claims on Baden that the crown prince pressed for a liberal constitution, the reluctance of Montgelas to concede it being the cause of his dismissal. On the 26th of May 1818 the constitution was proclaimed. The parliament was to consist of two houses; the first comprising the great hereditary land-owners, government officials and nominees of the crown; the second, elected on a very narrow franchise, representatives of the small land-owners, the towns and the peasants. By additional articles the equality of religions was guaranteed and the rights of Protestants safeguarded, concessions which were denounced at Rome as a breach of the See also:Concordat, which had been signed immediately before. The result of the constitutional experiment hardly justified the royal expectations; the parliament was hardly opened (February 5th, 1819) before the doctrinaire radicalism of some of its members, culminating in the demand that the army should swear See also:allegiance to the constitution, so alarmed the king, that he appealed to Austria and Germany, undertaking to carry out any repressive measures they might recommend. Prussia, however, refused to approve of any coup d'etat; the parliament, chastened by the consciousness that its life depended on the See also:goodwill of the king, moderated its See also:tone; and Maximilian ruled till his death as a See also:model constitutional monarch. On the 13th of October 1825, he was succeeded by his son, Louis I., an enlightened patron of the arts and sciences, who transferred the university of Landshut to Munich, which, by his magnificent See also:taste in building, he trans-formed into one of the most beautiful cities of the See also:continent. The earlier years of his reign were marked by a liberal spirit and the reform, especially, of the See also:financial administration; but the revolutions of 1831 frightened him into reaction, which was accentuated by the opposition of the parliament to his See also:expenditure on building and works of art. In 1837 the Ultramontanes came into power with Karl von See also:Abel (1788–1859) as See also:prime minister. The Jesuits now gained the upper hand; one by one the liberal provisions of the constitution were modified or annulled; the Protestants were harried and oppressed; and a rigorous censorship forbade any free discussion .of internal politics. The collapse of this regime was due, not to popular agitation, but to the resentment of Louis at the clerical Constitu• See also:don of 1818. of Augustenburg against the policy of the two great German powers. Finally, in the war of 1866, in spite of See also:Bismarck's efforts to secure her See also:neutrality, Bavaria sided actively with Austria. The rapid victory of the Prussians and the wise moderation of Bismarck paved the way for a complete revolution in Bavaria's relation to Prussia and the German question. The Union South German Confederation, contemplated by the with 6th article of the treaty of Prague, never came into aeraan being; and, though Prussia, in order not prematurely empire. to excite the alarm of France, opposed the See also:suggestion that the southern states . should join the North German Confederation, the bonds of Bavaria, as of the other southern states, with the north, were strengthened by an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia, as the result of Napoleon's demand for " compensation " in the Palatinate. This was signed at Berlin on the 22nd of August 1866, on the same See also:day as the See also:signature of the formal treaty of peace between the two countries. The separatist ambitions of Bavaria were thus formally given up; she had no longer " need of France "; and in the war of 1870-71, the Bavarian army marched, under the command of the Prussian crown prince, against the, common enemy of Germany. It was on the proposal of King Louis II. that the imperial crown was opposition to the influence of his See also:mistress, Lola Montez. On the 17th of February 1847, Abel was dismissed, for See also:publishing his memorandum against the proposal to naturalize Lola, who was an Irishwoman; and the Protestant Georg See also:Ludwig von See also:Maurer (q.v.) took his place. The new ministry granted the certificate of See also:naturalization; but riots, in which ultramontane professors of the university took part, were the result. The professors were deprived, the parliament dissolved, and, on the 27th of November, the ministry dismissed. Lola 14iontez, created Countess Landsfeld, was supreme in the state; and the new minister, Prince Ludwig 'von Oettingen-Wallerstein (1791-1870), in spite of his efforts to enlist Liberal sympathy by appeals to See also:pan-German patriotism, was powerless to form a See also:stable government. His cabinet was known as the " Lolaministerium "; in February 1848, stimulated by the See also:news from Paris, riots broke out against the countess; on the 11th of March the king dismissed Oettingen, and on the loth, realizing the force of public See also:opinion against him, abdicated in favour of his son, Maximilian II. Before his See also:abdication Louis had issued, on the 6th of March, a See also:proclamation promising the zealous co-operation of the Bavarian government in the work of German freedom and unity. To the spirit of this Maximilian was faithful, accepting the authority of the central government at Frankfort, and (loth of December) sanctioning the See also:official promulgation of the laws passed by the German parliament. But Prussia was henceforth the enemy, not Austria. In refusing to agree to the offer of the imperial crown to Frederick William IV., Maximilian had the support of his parliament. In withholding his assent to the new German constitution, by which Austria was excluded from the Confederation, he ran indeed counter to the sentiment of his people; but by this time the back of the revolution was broken, and in the events which led to the humiliation of Prussia at See also:Olmutz in 185r, and the restoration of the old diet of the Confederation, Bavaria was safe in casting in her lot with Austria (see GERMANY: History). The guiding spirit in this See also:anti-Prussian policy, which characterized Bavarian statesmanship up to the war of 1866, was Ludwig Karl Heinrich von der Pfordten (1811-1880), who became minister for foreign affairs on the 19th of April 1849. His See also:idea for the ultimate See also:solution of the question of the See also:balance of power in Germany was the so-called Trios, i.e. a league of the Rhenish states as a counterpoise to the preponderance of Austria and Prussia. In internal affairs his ministry was characterized by a reactionary policy less severe than elsewhere in Germany, which led none the less from 1854 onward to a struggle with the parliament, which ended in the dismissal of Pfordten's ministry on the 27th of March 1859. He was succeeded by Karl Freiherr von Schrenk auf Notzing (1806-1884), an official of Liberal tendencies who had been Bavarian representative in the diet of the Confederation. Important reforms were now introduced, including the separation of the judicial and executive powers and the See also:drawing up of a new criminal See also:code. In foreign affairs Schrenk, like his predecessor, aimed at safeguarding the in-dependence of Bavaria, and supported the idea of superseding the actual constitution of the Confederation by a supreme See also:directory, in which Bavaria, as See also:leader of the purely German states, would hold the balance between Prussia and Austria. Bavaria accordingly opposed the Prussian proposals for the reorganization of the Confederation, and one of the last acts of King Maximilian was to take a conspicuous part in the assembly of princes summoned to Frankfort in 1863 by the emperor See also:Francis Joseph (see GERMANY). Maximilian was succeeded on the loth of March 1864 by his son Louis II., a youth of eighteen. The government was at first carried on by Schrenk and Pfordten in See also:concert. Schrenk soon retired, when the Bavarian government found it necessary, in order to maintain its position in the Prussian See also:Zollverein, to become a party to the Prussian commercial treaty with France, , signed in 1862. In the complicated See also:Schleswig-See also:Holstein question (q.v.) Bavaria, under Pfordten's guidance, consistently opposed Prussia, and headed the lesser states in their support of Frederickoffered to King William. This was preceded, on the 23rd of November 1870, by the signature of a treaty between Bavaria and the North German Confederation.. By this See also:instrument, though Bavaria became an integral part of the new German empire, she reserved a larger measure of sovereign independence than any of the other constituent states. Thus she retained a separate See also:diplomatic service, military administration, and postal, telegraph and railway systems. The treaty was ratified by the Bavarian See also:chambers on the 21st of January 1871, though not without considerable opposition on the part of the so-called " patriot " party. Their hostility was increased by the Kulturkampf , due to the promulgation in 1870 of the See also:dogma of papal See also:infallibility. . Munich University, where Dellinger (q.v.) was See also:professor, became the centre of the opposition to the new dogma, and- the " old Catholics " (q.v.) were protected by the king and the government. The federal law expelling the Jesuits was proclaimed in Bavaria on the 6th of September 1871 and was extended to the Redemptorists in 1873. On the 31st of March 1871, moreover, the bonds with the rest of the empire had been See also:drawn closer by the See also:acceptance of a number of laws of the North German Confederation, of which the most important was the new criminal code, which was finally put into force in Bavaria in 1879. The opposition of the " patriot " party, however, reinforced by the strong Catholic sentiment of the country, continued powerful, and it was only the steady support given by the king to successive Liberal ministries that prevented its finding disastrous expression in the parliament, where it remained in a greater or less majority till 1887, and has since, as the " centre," continued to form the most compact . party in an assembly made up of " See also:groups." Meanwhile the royal dreamer, whose See also:passion for building palaces was becoming a serious drain on the See also:treasury, had been declared insane, and, on the 7th of June 1886, the heir-presumptive, Prince Luitpold, was proclaimed regent. Six days later, on the 13th of June, Louis committed See also:suicide. His brother, Otto I., being also insane, the regency was confirmed to Prince Luitpold. Since 1871 Bavaria has shared to the full in the marvellous development of Germany; but her " particularism," founded on traditional racial and religious antagonism to the Prussians, was by no means dead, though it exhibited itself in . no more dangerous form than the See also:prohibition, reissued in 'goo, to display any but the Bavarian See also:flag on public buildings on the emperor's birthday; a See also:provision which has been since so far modified as to allow the Bavarian and imperial flags to be hung side by, side. G. T. Rudhart, Aelteste Geschichte Bayerns (See also:Hamburg, 1841); A. Quitzmann, Abstammung, Ursitz, and alteste Geschichte der Bait-warm (Munich, 1857), and See also:Die alteste Geschichte der Baiern bis' 911 Lola Montez. Anti-Prussian policy. (See also:Brunswick, 1873) ; S. Riezler, Geschichte Bayerns (Gotha,1878-1899) ; Ad. Brecher, Darstellung der geschichttichen Entwickelung des bayrischen Staatsgebiets, See also:map (Berlin, 189o); E. See also:Rosenthal, Geschichte des Gerichtswesens and der Veswaltungsorganisation Bayerns (Wurzburg, 1889) ; A. See also:Buchner, Geschichte von Baiern (Munich, 182o-1833); Forschungen zur Geschichte. Bayerns, edited by K. von Reinhardstottner (Berlin, 1897 fol.). Much valuable detail will be found in the lives of Bavarian princes and statesmen in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (See also:Leipzig, 1875-1906 in progr.) (W. A. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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