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CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 7...

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CHARLEMAGNE [See also:CHARLES THE See also:GREAT] (c. 742-814) , See also:Roman See also:emperor, and See also:king of the See also:Franks, was the See also:elder son of See also:Pippin the See also:Short, king of the Franks, and Bertha, or Bertrada, daughter of See also:Charibert, See also:count of See also:Laon. The See also:place of his See also:birth is unknown and its date uncertain, although some authorities give it as the and of See also:April 742; doubts have been See also:cast upon his See also:legitimacy, and it is just possible that the See also:marriage of Pippin and Bertha took place subsequent to the birth of their elder son. When Pippin was crowned king of the Franks at St See also:Denis on the 28th of See also:July 754 by See also:Pope See also:Stephen II., Charles, and his See also:brother See also:Carloman were anointed by thepope as a sign of their kingly See also:rank. The rough surroundings of the Frankish See also:court were unfavourable to the acquisition of learning, and Charles See also:grew up almost ignorant of letters, but See also:hardy in See also:body and skilled in the use of weapons. In 761 he accompanied his See also:father on a See also:campaign in See also:Aquitaine, and in 763 undertook the See also:government of several counties. In 768 Pippin divided his dominions between his two sons, and on his See also:death soon afterwards Charles became the ruler of the See also:northern portion of the Frankish See also:kingdom, and was crowned at See also:Noyon on the 9th of See also:October 768. See also:Bad feeling had existed for some See also:time between Charles and Carloman, and when Charles See also:early in 769 was called upon to suppress a rising in Aquitaine, his brother refused to afford him any assistance. This See also:rebellion, however, was easily crushed, its See also:leader, the Aquitainian See also:duke Hunold, was made prisoner, and his territory more closely attached to the Frankish kingdom. About this time Bertha, having effected a temporary reconciliation between her sons, overcame the repugnance with which Pope Stephen III. regarded an See also:alliance between See also:Frank and Lombard, and brought about a marriage between Charles and a daughter of See also:Desiderius, king of the See also:Lombards. Charles had previously contracted a See also:union, probably of an irregular nature, with a Frankish See also:lady named Himiltrude, who had See also:borne him a son Pippin, the " Hunchback." The See also:peace with the Lombards, in which the Bavarians as See also:allies of Desiderius joined, was, however, soon broken. Charles thereupon repudiated his Lombard wife (Bertha or Desiderata) and married in 771 a princess of the See also:Alamanni named Hildegarde.

Carloman died in See also:

December 771, and Charles was at once recognized at Corbeny as See also:sole king of the Franks. Carloman's widow Gerberga had fled to the See also:protection of the Lombard king, who espoused her cause and requested the new pope, See also:Adrian I., to recognize her two sons as the lawful Frankish See also:kings. Adrian, between whom and the Lombards other causes of See also:quarrel existed, refused to assent to this demand, and when Desiderius invaded the papal territories he appealed to the Frankish king for help. Charles, who was at the moment engaged in his first Saxon campaign, ex-postulated with Desiderius; but when such mild See also:measures proved useless he led his forces across the See also:Alps in 773. Gerberga and her See also:children were delivered up and disappear from See also:history; the See also:siege of See also:Pavia was undertaken; and at See also:Easter 774 the king See also:left the seat of See also:war and visited See also:Rome, where he was received with great respect. During his stay in the See also:city Charles renewed the donation which his father Pippin had made to the papacy in 754 or 756. This transaction has given rise to much discussion as to its See also:trust-worthiness and the extent of its operation. Our only authority, a passage in the See also:Liber Pontificalis, describes See also:tire See also:gift as including the whole of See also:Italy and See also:Corsica, except the lands See also:north of the Po, See also:Calabria and the city of See also:Naples. The vast extent of this donation, which, - moreover, included territories not owning Charles's authority, and the fact that the - king did not execute, or apparently See also:attempt to execute, its provisions, has caused many scholars to look upon the passage as a See also:forgery; but the better 892 See also:opinion would appear to be that it is genuine, or at least has a genuine basis. Various explanations have been suggested. The See also:area of the See also:grant may have been enlarged by later interpolations; or it may have dealt with See also:property rather than with See also:sovereignty, and have only referred to estates claimed by the pope in the territories named; or it is possible that Charles may have actually intended to establish an extensive papal kingdom in Italy, but was released from his promise by Adrian when the pope saw no See also:chance of its fulfilment. Another supposition is that the author of the Liber Pontificalis gives the papal See also:interpretation of a grant that had been expressed by Pippin in ambiguous terms; and this view is supported by the history of the subsequent controversy between king and pope.

Returning to the See also:

scene of hostilities, Charles witnessed the See also:capitulation of Pavia in See also:June 774, and the See also:capture of Desiderius, who was sent into a monastery. He now took the See also:title " king of the Lombards," to which he added the dignity of "Patrician of the See also:Romans," which had been granted to his father. Adalgis, the son of Desiderius, who was residing at See also:Constantinople, hoped the emperor See also:Leo IV. would assist him in recovering his father's kingdom; but a See also:coalition formed for this purpose was ineffectual, and a rising led by his ally Rothgaud, duke of See also:Friuli, was easily crushed by Charles in 776. In 777 the king was visited at See also:Paderborn by three Saracen chiefs who implored his aid against Abdar-Rahman, the See also:caliph of See also:Cordova, and promised some See also:Spanish cities in return for help. Seizing this opportunity to extend his See also:influence Charles marched into See also:Spain in 778 and took Pampeluna, but See also:meeting with some checks decided to return. As the Frankish forces were defiling through the passes of the See also:Pyrenees they were attacked by the Wascones (probably See also:Basques), and the See also:rear-guard of the See also:army was almost annihilated. It was useless to attempt to avenge this disaster, which occurred on the 15th of See also:August 778, for the enemy disappeared as quickly as he came; the incident has passed from the domain of history into that of See also:legend and See also:romance, being associated by tradition with the pass of See also:Roncesvalles. Among the slain was one Hruodland, or See also:Roland; See also:margrave of the See also:Breton See also:march, whose death gave rise to the Chanson de Roland (see ROLAND, LEGEND OF). Charles now sought to increase his authority in Italy, where Frankish See also:counts were set over various districts, and where See also:Hildebrand, duke of See also:Spoleto, appears to have recognized his overlordship. In 78o he was again in the See also:peninsula, and at See also:Mantua issued an important See also:capitulary which increased the authority of the Lombard bishops., relieved freemen who under stress of See also:famine had sold themselves into See also:servitude, and condemned abuses of the See also:system of vassalage. At the same time See also:commerce was encouraged by the abolition of unauthorized tolls and by an improvement of the coinage; while the See also:sale of arms to hostile peoples, and the See also:trade in See also:Christian slaves were forbidden. Proceeding to Rome, the king appears to have come to some arrangement with Adrian about the donation of 774.

At Easter 781, Carloman, his second son by Hildegarde, was renamed Pippin and crowned king of Italy by Pope Adrian, and his youngest son See also:

Louis was crowned king of Aquitaine; but no mention was made at the time of his eldest son. Charles, who was doubtless intended to be king of the Franks. In 783 the king, having lost his wife Hildegarde, married Fastrada, the daughter of a Frankish count named Radolf; and in the same See also:year his See also:mother Bertha died. The emperor See also:Constantine VI. was at this time exhibiting some See also:interest in See also:Italian affairs, and, Adalgis the Lombard was still residing at his court; so Charles sought to avert danger from this See also:quarter by consenting in 781 to a marriage between Constantine and his own daughter Rothrude. In 786 the entreaties of the pope and the hostile attitude of Arichis II., duke of See also:Benevento, a son-in-See also:law of Desiderius, called the king again into Italy. Arichis submitted without a struggle, though the basis of Frankish authority in his duchy was far from secure; but in See also:conjunction with. Adalgis he sought aid from Constantinople. His plans were ended by his death in 787, and although the empress See also:Irene, the real ruler of the eastern See also:empire, See also:broke off the projected marriage between her son and Rothrude, she appears to have given very little assistance to Adalgis,whose attack on Italy was easily repulsed. During this visit Charles had presented certain towns to Adrian, but an estrangement soon arose between king and pope over the claim of Charles to confirm the See also:election to the archbishopric of See also:Ravenna, and it was accentuated by Adrian's objection to the See also:establishment by Charles of Grimoald III. as duke of Benevento, in See also:succession to his father Arichis. These journeys and See also:campaigns, however, were but interludes in the See also:long and stubborn struggle between Charles and the See also:Saxons, which began in 772 and ended in 804 with the See also:incorporation of See also:Saxony in the Carolingian empire (see SAXONY). This contest, in which the king himself took a very active See also:part, brought the Franks into collision with the Wiltzi, a tribe dwelling See also:east of the See also:Elbe, who in 789 was reduced to dependence. A similar sequence of events took place in See also:southern See also:Germany.

Tassilo III., duke of the Bavarians, who had on several occasions adopted a See also:

line of conduct inconsistent with his See also:allegiance to Charles, was deposed in 788 and his duchy placed under the See also:rule of Gerold, a brother-in-law of Charles, to be governed on the Frankish system (see See also:BAVARIA). Having thus taken upon himself the See also:control of Bavaria, Charles See also:felt himself responsible for protecting its eastern frontier, which had long been menaced by the See also:Avars, a See also:people inhabiting the region now known as See also:Hungary. He accordingly ravaged their See also:country in 791 at the See also:head of an army containing Saxon, Frisian, Bavarian and Alamannian warriors, which penetrated as far as the Raab; and he spent the following year in Bavaria preparing for a second campaign against them, the conduct of which, however, he was compelled by further trouble in Saxony to entrust to his son king Pippin, and to See also:Eric, margrave of Friuli. These deputies succeeded in 795 and 796 in taking See also:possession of the vast treasures of the Avars, which were distributed by the king with lavish generosity to churches, courtiers and See also:friends. A See also:conspiracy against Charles, which his friend and biographer See also:Einhard alleges was provoked by the cruelties of See also:Queen Fastrada, was suppressed without difficulty in 792, and its leader, the king's illegitimate son Pippin, was confined in a monastery till his death in 811. Fastrada died in August 794, when Charles took for his See also:fourth wife anAlamannian lady named Liutgarde. The continuous interest taken by the king in ecclesiastical affairs was shown at the See also:synod of See also:Frankfort, over which he presided in 794. It was on his initiative that this synod condemned the See also:heresy of See also:adoptianism and the See also:worship of images, which had been restored in 787 by the second See also:council of See also:Nicaea; and at the same time that council was declared to have been superfluous. This policy caused a further See also:breach with Pope Adrian; but when Adrian died in December 795, his successor, Leo III., in notifying his See also:elevation to the king, sent him the keys of St See also:Peter's See also:grave and the banner of the city, and asked Charles to send an See also:envoy to receive his See also:oath of fidelity. There is no doubt that Leo recognized Charles as See also:sovereign of Rome. He was the first pope to date his acts according to the years of the Frankish See also:monarchy, and a See also:mosaic of the time in the Lateran See also:palace represents St Peter bestowing the See also:banners upon Charles as a token of temporal supremacy, while the coinage issued by the pope bears See also:witness to the same See also:idea. Leo soon had occasion to invoke the aid of his See also:protector.

In 799, after he had been attacked and maltreated in the streets of Rome during a procession, he escaped to the king at Paderborn, and Charles sent him back to Italy escorted by some of his most trusted servants. Taking the same See also:

journey himself shortly afterwards, the king reached Rome in 800 for'the purpose (as he declared) of restoring discipline in the See also:church. His authority was undisputed; and after Leo had cleared himself by an oath of certain charges made against him, Charles restored the pope and banished his leading opponents. The great event of this visit took place on the succeeding See also:Christmas See also:Day, when Charles on rising from See also:prayer in St Peter's was crowned by Leo and proclaimed emperor and See also:augustus amid the acclamations of the See also:crowd. This See also:act can hardly have been unpremeditated, and some doubt has been cast upon the statement which Einhard attributes to Charles, that he would not have entered the See also:building had he known of the intention of Leo. He accepted the dignity at any See also:rate without demur, and there seems little doubt that the question of assuming, or obtaining, this title had previously been discussed. His policy had been steadily leading up to this position, which was rather the See also:emblem of the See also:power he already held than an See also:extension of the area of his authority. It is probable therefore that Charles either considered the See also:coronation premature, as he was hoping to obtain the assent of the eastern empire to this step, or that, from fear of evils which he foresaw from the claim of the pope to See also:crown the emperor, he wished to crown himself. All the See also:evidence tends to show that it was the time or manner of the act rather than the act itself which aroused his temporary displeasure. Contemporary accounts See also:lay stress upon the fact that as there was then no emperor, Constantinople being under the rule of Irene, it seemed See also:good to Leo and his counsellors and the " See also:rest of the Christian people " to choose Charles, already ruler of Rome, to fill the vacant See also:office. However doubtful such conjectures concerning his intentions may be, it is certain that immediately after his coronation Charles sought to establish friendly relations with Constantinople, and even suggested a marriage between himself and Irene, as he had again become a widower in 800. The deposition and death of the empress foiled this See also:plan; and after a desultory warfare in Italy between the two empires, negotiations were recommenced which in 810 led to an arrangement between Charles and the eastern emperor, Nicephorus I.

The death of Nicephorus and the See also:

accession of See also:Michael I. did not interfere with the relations, and in 812 an See also:embassy from Constantinople arrived at See also:Aix-la-Chapelle, when Charles was acknowledged as emperor, and in return agreed to cede See also:Venice and See also:Dalmatia to Michael. Increasing years and accumulating responsibilities now caused the emperor to alter somewhat his manner of See also:life. No longer leading his armies in See also:person he entrusted the direction of campaigns in various parts of his empire to his sons and other lieutenants, and from his favourite See also:residence at Aix watched their progress with a keen and sustained interest. In 802 he ordered that a new oath of fidelity to him as emperor should be taken by all his subjects over twelve years of See also:age. In 804 he was visited by Pope Leo, who returned to Rome laden with gifts. Before his coronation as emperor, Charles had entered into communications with the caliph of See also:Bagdad, See also:Harun-al-Rashid, probably in See also:order to protect the eastern Christians, and in 801 he had received an embassy and presents from Harun. In the same year the See also:patriarch of See also:Jerusalem sent him the keys of the See also:Holy See also:Sepulchre; and in 807 Harun not only sent further gifts, but appears to have confirmed the emperor's rights in Jerusalem, which, how-ever, probably amounted to no more than an undefined protector-See also:ate over the Christians in that part of the See also:world. While thus extending his influence even into See also:Asia, there was scarcely any part of See also:Europe where the power of Charles did not make itself felt. He had not visited Spain since the disaster of Roncesvalles, but he continued to take a lively interest in the affairs of that country. In 798 he had concluded an alliance with See also:Alphonso II., king of the See also:Asturias, and a See also:series of campaigns mainly under the leadership of King Louis resulted in the. establishment of the " Spanish march," a See also:district between the Pyrenees and the See also:Ebro stretching from Pampeluna to See also:Barcelona, as a See also:defence against the See also:Saracens. In 799 the Balearic Islands had been handed over to Charles, and a long warfare was carried on both by See also:sea and See also:land between Frank and Saracen until 81o, when peace was made between the emperor and El-Hakem, the emir of Cordova. Italy was equally the scene of continuous fighting.

Grimoald of Benevento rebelled against his overlord; the possession of Venice and Dalmatia was disputed by the two empires; and See also:

Istria was brought into subjection. With See also:England the emperor had already entered into relations, and at one time a marriage was proposed between his son Charles and a daughter of See also:Offa, king of the Mercians. See also:English exiles were welcomed at his court; he was mainly instrumental in restoring Eardwulf to the See also:throne of See also:Northumbria in 8o9; and Einhard includes the Scots within the See also:sphere of his influence. In eastern Europe the Avars had owned themselves completely under his power in 805; campaigns against the Czechs in 8o5 and 8o6 had met with some success, and about the same time the land of the See also:Sorbs was ravaged; while at the western extremity of the See also:continent the Breton nobles had done See also:homage to Charles at See also:Tours in 800. Thus the emperor's dominions now stretched from the See also:Eider to the Ebro, and from the See also:Atlantic to the Elbe, the See also:Saale and the Raab, and they also included the greater part of Italy; while even beyond these See also:bounds he exercised an acknowledged but shadowy authority. In 8o6 Charles arranged a See also:division of'his territories among his three legitimate sons, but this arrangement came to nothing owing to the death of Pippin in 81o, and of the younger Charles in the following year. Charles then named his remaining son Louis as his successor; and at his father's command Louis took the crown from the See also:altar and placed it upon his own head. This ceremony took place at Aix on the See also:firth of See also:September 813. In 8o8 the Frankish authority over the Obotrites was interfered with by Gudrod (See also:Godfrey), king of the Danes, who ravaged the Frisian coasts and spoke boastfully of leading his troops to Aix. To See also:ward off these attacks Charles took a warm interest in the building of a See also:fleet, which he reviewed in 811; but by this time Gudrod had been killed, and his successor Hemming made peace with the emperor. In 811 Charles made his will, which shows that he contemplated the possibility of See also:abdication. The bulk of his possessions were left to the twenty-one See also:metropolitan churches of his dominions, and the See also:remainder to his children, his servants and the poor.

In his last years he passed most of his days at Aix, though he had sufficient See also:

energy to take the See also:field for a short time during the Danish War. Early in 814 he was attacked by a See also:fever which he sought to subdue by See also:fasting; but See also:pleurisy supervened, and after partaking of the communion, he died on the 28th of See also:January 814, and on the same day his body was buried in the church of St See also:Mary at Aix. In the year r000 his See also:tomb was opened by the emperor See also:Otto III., but the See also:account that Otto found the body upright upon a throne with a See also:golden crown on the head and holding a golden See also:sceptre in the hands, is generally regarded as legendary. The tomb was again opened by the emperor See also:Frederick I. in 1165, when the remains were removed from a See also:marble See also:sarcophagus and placed in a wooden See also:coffin. Fifty years later they were transferred by order of the emperor Frederick II. to a splendid See also:shrine, in which the See also:relics are still exhibited once in every six years. The sarcophagus in which the body originally lay may still be seen at Aix, and other relics of the great emperor are in the imperial See also:treasury at See also:Vienna. In 1165 Charles was canonized by the antipope See also:Paschal III. at the instance of the emperor Frederick I., and Louis XI. of See also:France gave strict orders that the feast of the See also:saint should be observed. The See also:personal See also:appearance of Charles is thus described by Einhard:—" Big and robust in See also:frame, he was tall, but not excessively so, measuring about seven of his own feet in height. His eyes were large and lustrous, his See also:nose rather long and his countenance See also:bright and cheerful." He had a commanding presence, a clear but somewhat feeble See also:voice, and in later life became rather corpulent. His See also:health was uniformly good, owing perhaps to his moderation in eating and drinking, and to his love for See also:hunting and See also:swimming. He was an affectionate father, and loved to pass his time in the See also:company of his children, to whose See also:education he paid the closest See also:attention. His sons were trained for war and the See also:chase, and his daughters instructed in the See also:spinning of See also:wool and other feminine arts.

His ideas of sexual morality were See also:

primitive. Many concubines are spoken of, he had several illegitimate children, and the morals of his daughters were very loose. He was a See also:regular observer of religious See also:rites, took great pains to secure decorum in the services of the church, and was generous in almsgiving both within his empire and without. He reformed the Frankish See also:liturgy, and brought singers from Rome to improve the services of the church. He had considerable knowledge of See also:theology, took a prominent part in the theological controversies of the time, and was responsible for the addition of the clause filioque to the Nicene Creed. The most attractive feature of his See also:character, however, was his love of learning. In addition to his native See also:tongue he could read Latin and understood See also:Greek, but he was unable to write, and Einhard gives an account of his futile efforts to learn this See also:art in later life. He loved the See also:reading of histories and See also:astronomy, and by questioning travellers gained some knowledge of distant parts of the See also:earth. He attended lectures on See also:grammar, and his favourite See also:work was St See also:Augustine's De civitate Dei. He caused Frankish sagas to be collected, began a grammar of his native tongue, and spent some of his last See also:hours in correcting a See also:text of the See also:Vulgate. He delighted in the society of scholars—Alcuin, See also:Angilbert, See also:Paul the Lombard, Peter of See also:Pisa and others, and in this company the trappings of rank were laid aside and the emperor was known simply as See also:David. Under his patronage See also:Alcuin organized the school of the palace, where the royal children were taught in the company of others, and founded a school at Tours which became the See also:model for many other establishments.

Charles was unwearying in his efforts to improve the education of See also:

clergy and laity, and in 789 ordered that See also:schools should be established in every See also:diocese. The See also:atmosphere of these schools was strictly ecclesiastical and the questions discussed by the scholars were often puerile, but the greatness of the educational work of Charles will not be doubted when one considers the See also:rude See also:condition of Frankish society See also:half a See also:century before. The See also:main work of the Carolingian See also:renaissance was to restore Latin to its position as a See also:literary See also:language, and to reintroduce a correct system of spelling and an improved See also:handwriting. The See also:manuscripts of the time are accurate and See also:artistic, copies of valuable books were made and by careful See also:collation the texts were purified. Charles was not a great See also:warrior. His victories were won rather by the power of organization, which he possessed in a marked degree, and he was eager to seize ideas and prompt in their See also:execution. He erected a See also:stone See also:bridge with wooden piers across the See also:Rhine at See also:Mainz, and began a See also:canal between the See also:Altmuhl and the Rednitz to connect the Rhine and the See also:Danube, but this work was not finished. He built palaces at Aix (his favourite residence), See also:Nijmwegen and See also:Ingelheim, and erected the church of St Mary at Aix, modelled on that of St Vitalis at Ravenna and adorned with columns and mosaics brought from the same city. He loved the See also:simple See also:dress and See also:manners of the Franks, and on two occasions only did he assume the more stately attire of a Roman See also:noble. The administrative system of Charles in church and See also:state was largely personal, and he brought to the work an untiring See also:industry, and a marvellous grasp of detail. He admonished the pope, appointed the bishops, watched over the morals and work of the clergy, and took an active part in the deliberations of church synods; he founded bishoprics and monasteries, was lavish in his gifts to ecclesiastical See also:foundations, and See also:chose bishops and abbots for administrative work. As the real founder of the ecclesiastical state, he must be held mainly responsible for the evils which resulted from the policy of the church in exalting the ecclesiastical over the See also:secular authority.

In secular affairs Charles abolished the office of duke, placed counts over districts smaller than the former duchies, and supervised their government by means of missi dominici, officials responsible to himself alone. See also:

Marches were formed on all the See also:borders of the empire, and the exigencies of military service led to the growth of a system of land-See also:tenure which contained the germ of See also:feudalism. The assemblies of the people gradually changed their character under his rule. No longer did the nation come together to See also:direct and govern, but the emperor summoned his people to assent to his acts. Taking a lively interest in commerce and See also:agriculture, Charles issued various regulations for the organization of the one and the improvement of the other. He introduced a new system of weights and measures, which he ordered should be used throughout his kingdom, and took steps to reform the coinage. He was a voluminous lawgiver. Without abolishing the customary law of the See also:German tribes, which is said to have been committed to See also:writing by his orders, he added to it by means of capitularies, and thus introducedcertain Christian principles and customs, and some degree of uniformity. The extent and glamour of his empire exercised a potent spell on western Europe. The aim of the greatest of his successors was to restore it to its pristine position and influence, while many of the See also:French rulers made its re-establishment the See also:goal of their policy. Otto the Great to a considerable extent succeeded; Louis XIV. referred frequently to the empire of Charlemagne; and See also:Napoleon regarded him as his prototype and predecessor. The empire of Charles, however, was not lasting.

In spite of his own wonderful See also:

genius the seeds of weakness were sown in his lifetime. The church was too powerful, an incipient feudalism was See also:present, and there was no real See also:bond of union between the different races that acknowledged his authority. All the vigilance of the emperor could not restrain the dishonesty and the cupidity of his servants, and no sooner was the strong See also:hand of their ruler removed than they began to acquire territorial power for themselves. griod appear in the Poetae See also:Latini aevi Carolini, edited by E. ummler (See also:Berlin, 1881–1884). The Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum, tome iv., edited by Ph. Jaffe .(Berlin, 1864-1873), contains some of the emperor's See also:correspondence, and See also:Hincmar's De ordine palatii, edited by M. Prou (See also:Paris, 1884), is also valuable. The best See also:modern authorities are S. See also:Abel and B. See also:Simson, Jahrbiicher See also:des frdnkischen Reiches unter Karl dem Grossen (See also:Leipzig, 1883–1888); G. See also:Richter and H. See also:Kohl, Annalen des frdnkischen Reichs See also:im Zeitalter derKarolinger (See also:Halle, 1885–1887) ; E.

Muhlbacher, Deutsche Geschichte unter den Karolingern (See also:

Stuttgart, 1886) ; H. Brosien, Karl der See also:Grosse (Leipzig and See also:Prague, 1885) ; J. I. Mombert, History of Charles the Great (See also:London, 1888) ; M. Lipp, Das frdnkische Grenzsystem unter Karl dem Grossen (See also:Breslau, 1892) ; J. von Dellinger, Das Kaiserthum Karls des Grossen and seiner Nachfolger (See also:Munich, 1864) ; F. von Wyss, Karl der Grosse als Gesetzgeber (See also:Zurich, 1869); Th. Sickel, Lehre von den Urkunden der ersten Karolinger (Vienna, 1867); E. See also:Dummler in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, See also:Band xv.; Th. Lindner, See also:Die Fabel von der Bestattung Karls des Grossen (Aix-la-Chapelle, 1893) ; J. A. Ketterer, Karl der Grosse and die Kirche (Munich and Leipzig, 1898); and J. B. Mullinger, The Schools of Charles the Great and the Restoration of Education in the 9th century (London, 1877).

The work of the See also:

monk of St See also:Gall is found in the Monumenta, Band ii.; an edition of the Historia de vita Caroli Magni et Rolandi, edited by F. Castets, has been published (Paris, 1880), and an edition of the Kaiserchronik, edited by E. See also:Schroder (See also:Hanover, 1892). See also P. Clemen, Die Portrdtdarstellung Karls des Grossen (Aix-la-Chapelle, 1896). (A. W.

End of Article: CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814)

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