PAUL , " the Apostle of the Gentiles," the first See also:

• GREAT

To this the See also:

• PRIMITIVE

In giving some See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

Albrecht See also:

• RITSCHL, ALBRECHT (1822-1889)
• RITSCHL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1806-1876)

The pi4ot of the whole is See also:

• FESTUS (? RuFUS or RUFIUS)
• FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS

37, See also:

• XXIII

Tarsus, it seems, was peculiarly successful " in producing an amalgamated society in which the See also:

• ORIENTAL

Above all he See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

Upon the " See also:

• ADVANTAGE

But if so, a day came when the inner meaning of the Law, as extending to the See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

The Law would reign inwardly as outwardly, being " written on the heart " as promised in prophecy. - So may we conceive the position reached by Saul, though not with full consciousness, before he came into contact with Christianity. But as yet he did not realize that "through the Law he had died to the Law" (Gal. Fn moons as ii. '9), much less the logical bearing of this fact upon to Jesus. the nature and See also:

• FUNCTION

If the See also:

• SIMPLE

Law. Yet the goading of unsatisfied intuitions did not cease. We may even suspect that Stephen's philosophy of Israel's history had made an impression on him, and was undermining his confidence in the See also:

• INFALLIBILITY (Fr. infaillibilite and infallibilite, the latter now obsolete, Med. Lat. infallibilitas, infallibilis, formed from faller, to make a mistake)

13), and the hindrances to his belief were exceptional. See also:

• DIRECT

On the other hand, analogies furnished by religious See also:

• PSYCHOLOGY
• PSYCHOLOGY (>Guxrl, the mind or soul, and X yos, theory)

Others confine the objectivity to a divine See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

19), of which the See also:

• CROSS

Then with new-born See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

Its See also:

• PRIMARY

Thus the Cross of Jesus was the satisfaction of the claims of Law as a dispensation or divinely sanctioned method, which had to be honoured even in the act of being transcended, " that God might be just (i.e. dispensationally consistent), while justifying the believer in Jesus " on a fresh basis (Rom. iii. 26). Such a view did but " establish the Law " (v. 31) within its own proper sphere, while pointing beyond it to one in which its final aim found fulfilment. Here lay the revolutionary element in Paul's thought in relation to Judaism, turning the latter " upside down " and marking his gospel off from the form in which Judaeo- tts a Christians had hitherto apprehended the salvation verssa! Yalue. in Jesus the Christ. It was the result of profound insight, and, historically, it saved Christianity from being a mere Jewish sect. But as it was conditioned by recoil from an overdriven use of the Law in the circles in which Saul was trained, so there was something one-sided in its emphasis on the pathological workings of the Law upon human nature in virtue of sinful egoism. Saul was the See also:

• PIONEER

He deals with it rather as the classic ,type of law in religion: it is really law qua law, even the unwritten law in conscience, as determining man's relations to God, that he has in mind in his psychological See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

If Paul supports his theory by See also:

• BAD, BCD

Christ simply replaced the Law as form and medium of relations between God and man. In this Paul went far beyond the older apostles, whose simpler attitude to the Law had never suggested the problem of its dispensational relation to Messiah, though in fact they relied on Messiah alone for justification before God. The logic of this, as Paul later urged it on See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

But beyond his See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

Paul's theory expressed the deeper sense of the all-inclusive significance of Christ, in keeping with his own experience. Hence, too, all his distinctive thoughts on religion, sometimes called " Paulinism (see below); were both experimental in origin and capable of statement in terms of his Christ. To him the Death and Resurrection of Christ were not isolated facts, nor yet abstractions. To this man of faith the See also:

• CRUCIAL (from Lat. crux, a cross)

22; Gal. i. 17). But finally his Jewish opponents planned to do away with him, by the connivance of the ethnarch of King See also:

• ARETAS (Arab. Haritha)

21-23), as they certainly would not have done had he all along addressed himself largely to Gentiles. His preaching, that is, was for the most part confined to the synagogue and its adherents of non-Jewish origin, whether circumcised or not. Of Saul's actual history, however, during these obscure years we gain only rare glimpses,' the first and most important being in connexion with the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

It is not clear how far Saul continued to reside in Antioch after his first " whole year " of continuous work as colleague of Barnabas. It no doubt remained his headquarters. But we may imagine him evangelizing also in the Aprns ostolate region between Antioch and Tarsus (Gal. i. 21; cf. Expands. Acts xv. 23, 41). Whilst so engaged, whether at Antioch or elsewhere, he seems to have attained quite a fresh sense of the degree to which Gentiles were destined to form an integral part of that " Israel of God " which was being gathered through faith in Jesus as the Christ (cf. the name " Christians," Acts xi. 26). Writing about summer A.D. 56, he speaks of having had an overpowering revelation some thirteen years previously (2 Cor. xii. 2-4), that is, about 42-43, the very period now in question.

He says nothing, it is true, as to its theme; but it can hardly have been unconnected with his central preoccupation, the scope of the Church, as set forth later in Eph. iii. 13. Saul's relations with the Jerusalem community between his coming to Antioch and his final relinquishing of it as his headquarters about A.D. 50 (a period of some ten years), form a crucial point in his missionary life. The extreme Tubingen theory that Saul was now, and even later, in See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

2). The date of this was c. 43-45. His aim was to confer solely with leaders (contrast Acts xv. 4, 12) like James and Cephas and John, the " pillars " of the Jerusalem community. But certain persons who showed such a spirit as to make him describe them as " pseudo-brethren," managed to be present and demanded the See also:

• CIRCUMCISION (Lat. circum, round, and caedere, to cut)

2, 4, in the case of See also:

• CORNELIUS
• CORNELIUS, CARL AUGUST PETER (1824-1874)
• CORNELIUS, PETER VON (1784–1867)

47, with Mark (q.v.) as their assistant. That they had at least one other See also:

• COMPANION (through the O. Fr. compaignon or compagnon, from the Late Lat. companio,—cum, with, and panis, bread,—one who shares meals with another; the word has been wrongly derived from the Late Lat. compagnus, one of the same pages or district)

It does not seem that the personal See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

M. Ramsay thinks that Paul sought the Galatian See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

22 seq. compared with Acts xi. 30, xii. 25. s For these, their history and significance in connexion with each of the cities studied, see Sir W. M. Ramsay, The Cities of St Paul (1907). Hellenized in speech and education. It is in this light that we must view the enthusiasm with which Paul's gospel was received (xiii. 44 sqq.; Gal. iv. 14 seq.), and which marked an See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

Yet even so he did not here and now give up all hope that the Jews of the Dispersion with their more liberal conception of Judaism, might be won over to a spiritual rather than a national fulfilment of " the promise made to the fathers " by " the voices of the prophets " (xiii. 26-28, 32 seq., 38 seq.). Primarily this " turning to the Gentiles " had for Paul only a local meaning, as he continued to begin in each See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

5), with its sequel in the naive worship offered to the strangers as gods See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

17, 28). Then, passing through Pamphylia they returned to Antioch, and reported to a church meeting " all that God had done with them, and how he had opened a See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

; compare A. See also:

• SABATIER, LOUIS AUGUSTE (1839-1901)

His See also:

• OBJECT

The other two were obvious deductions from fundamental Christian ideas, as well as elements of proselyte piety. On the other hand, See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

Equally above the doctrinaire See also:

• TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

It was one thing not to force Judaism on Gentile Christians; it was another to See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

16-26). But at Antioch he confined his protest to the vital matter of principle, the true relation of Christ and the Law, and the deadly danger of confusing their values and functions if both were to be treated as essential to Christian faith. Thus a higher expediency, for Jews in particular, told against the expediency alleged on the other side; while as for expediency in relation to the Gentiles, it was a matter not only of Antioch and the Jews and Gentiles there involved, but also of the Roman world and the relative See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

25, between his first visit and that of Gal. ii. i sqq. (this tells against the common view that Gal. sqq. = Acts xv.). Finally the reason why no explicit reference is made to the visit of Acts xv. is that it was already See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

20). This last condition seems to exclude as place of writin both Antioch on the See also:

• EVE

50. His way lay through churches of his own foundation, in one of which he found a helper to replace Mark, See also:

• TIMOTHY
• TIMOTHY, FIRST EPISTLE TO
• TIMOTHY, SECOND EPISTLE TO

11) in the case of Timothy, the son of a Gentile father? As for his earlier policy, it must have been due simply to a wish to See also:

• HUMOUR (Latin humor)

Such as when, on his way north- Europe. wards through the Phrygian region of Galatia,' he tried to enter See also:

• BITHYNIA (BtOvpta)

Here the Jewish See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

9). This must have occupied several weeks beyond those specified above (cf. 1 Thess. i.-ii.; and the material help received more than once from Philippi, Phil. iv. 16). But Jewish See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

4), of whom the late emperor Caligula might well seem a forerunner. Even so monstrous an issue of Jewish refusal of God's truth, in His Messiah, would be but the See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

The scope of his doctrine, the secret of right living, was such as to attract the notice of the Epicureans and See also:

• STOICS

No wonder that Paul's first feeling in this See also:

• MICROCOSM

Probably they were already Christians, and as they too were tent-makers Paul shared their home and their work. That he was often in straitened circumstances is proved by his having to accept aid from Macedonia (2 Cor. Xi. 9; cf. Phil. iv. 15). On the arrival of Silas and Timothy from that See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

I seq.) to use See also:

• GALLIO, JUNIUS ANNAEUS (originally Lucius ANNAEUS NOVATUS)

3). However hard his double toil of teacher and tent-maker might be, no sordid suspicions, such as his Jewish foes were ready to suggest (I Thess. ii. 9; 2 Thess. iii. 8), should gain any colour from his conduct. He would be to his converts as a father, and an embodiment of the new Christian See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

We need not suppose that Paul himself or his assistants used a set of rules as elaborate as the " Two Ways " (of Life and Death) 429. 2 This is the view favoured by archaeologists like See also:

• ERNST, HEINRICH WILHELM (1814–1865)

19; Col. iii. 5; cf. E. von Dobschiitz, Christian Life in the Primitive Church, app. 6). What was distinctive of Paul's ethical teaching was not any lack of positive precepts, but the intimate way in which he, paw,. like his Master, infused them with the spirit in Ethical which and by which they were to be realized, as Teacher. aspects of the ideal of love to God and man. He was supremely concerned with the dynamic of conduct, as to which his own experience made him the most inspiring of teachers and the greatest interpreter of the mind of Christ. The master motive on which he relied for all, was the See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

16 sqq.) into " the See also:

• IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

Side by side with the religion of the city and of the See also:

• FAMILY

6 sqq.). Whether Paul himself was influenced by such ideas, e.g. in relation to the Sacraments, is a further question as to which opinions are divided' After some eighteen months in Corinth, Paul felt the time had come to break fresh ground now at last perhaps at Ephesus, the key to the province of Asia. With this in view he took with him his fellow-workers Priscilla and visit to Aquila, and left them at Ephesus while he himself visited Syria for ends of his own. That these ends were of high import we may be sure, else he would not have spent on them a period of months when the door seemed already opening in Asia (Acts xviii. 19-21). Acts gives no hint as to their nature, save the statement that " he went up " from Caesarea to Jerusalem, " and saluted the church," before he " went down to Antioch." But Paul's letters enable us to infer that he relied largely on this visit for counteracting rumours which represented him as an apostate from Judaism.' After some stay in Antioch Paul started before autumn A.D. 53 for his third great See also:

• CAMPAIGN

The influence which went forth from this centre radiated throughout the whole province of Asia, partly through visitors to Ephesus on business or for worship at its great temple, and partly through Paul's lieutenants, such as Timothy and Epaphras (Col. i. 7; iv. 13). Witness to this extensive influence is afforded both by the friendly conduct of certain " Asiarchs " at the time of the See also:

• RIOT (0. Fr. riote, of uncertain etymology)

trades dependent on the cult of the Ephesian See also:

• ARTEMIS

3 seq.). Indeed he lived much of his time in Ephesus as one under daily See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

This brings us to the most tragic episode in Paul's career, judged by his own feelings, a psychological crucifixion of which The we have the vivid See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

17), already on his way to Corinth with See also:

• ERASTUS, THOMAS (1524-1583)

1, I Tim. i. 3). Then starting from See also:

• MILETUS (mod. Palatia)

5 sqq.; vii. 12). Accordingly in his next letter his heart overflows with gladness and See also:

• AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person)

It is to prepare the way for this (xiii. to) that Paul, while recognizing in the main the church's loyal affection, writes the second part of his letter (x.–xiii. to) in so different a key, striving to complete the reaction against his foes, with their taunt as to his not daring openly to take an apostle's support from his converts at Corinth (xi. 12 sqq., xii. I1–18). The Second Epistle to the Corinthians was written from Philippi or Thessalonica (ix. 2); and Timothy joins in its opening salutation. He had, it seems, been summoned to Paul's side from Ephesus by a hurried note, written after Titus's return from Corinth, in which he is informed that Erastus had remained in Corinth (? as now city-treasurer, Rom. xvi. 13), while Paul had been deprived also of the help of Trophimus, so that Timothy was unexpectedly needed at his side (this is embedded in an See also:

• ALIEN (Lat. alienus)

Another may have been the labour of inspecting the churches in those parts, which now reached at least as far as, if not into, Illyricum (Rom. xv. 19). In any case it was midwinter (56) before Paul became the See also:

• GUEST (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Gast, and Swed. gust; cognate with Lat. hostis, originally a stranger, hence enemy; cf. " host " )
• GUEST, EDWIN (1800–188o)

Hence Paul could not simply pass by it (i. 11 seq.). Very tactfully does he now offer his preliminary contributions to them—" by way of reminder," at least—emboldened thereto by the consciousness of a divine commission to the Gentiles, proved by what he had been enabled already to accomplish (xv. 15 sqq.). But how could Paul write at length to a community he had never visited ? Not to dwell on what he might have gathered from " Prisca and Aquila," the wonderful See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

Into the sweep of this high argument, as it is unfolded step by step, with an organic completeness or exposition See also:

• PECULIAR

So we gather from this very epistle, as well as from r See also:

• COS
• COS, or STANKO (Ital. Stanchio, Turk. Islan-keui, by corruption from Etc rav KW)

Paul had intended to cross the Aegean from Corinth with his party, by the direct route to Syria. But a Jewish See also:

• PLOT
• PLOT, ROBERT (164o-1696)

5), reaches to Jersak,n. this point. But as to the historical value of what follows, before " we " reappears with the start for Rome from Caesarea there is large diversity of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

Before Felix, Tertullus describes him as " a pestilent fellow, and a mover of tumults among all the Jews throughout the world, and a ringleader of the sect of the See also:

• NAZARENES (Nag'copaiot)

The last words of See also:

• AGRIPPA
• AGRIPPA, HEROD, I
• AGRIPPA, HEROD, II
• AGRIPPA, MARCUS VIPSANIUS

Whilst some welcomed and most regarded him as indeed a See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

3 sqq.). " Rejoice in the Lord " is its recurring note. Here we get the word of the hour, both for Paul and for his converts. The date of Philippians is an open question, See also:

• ENGLISH

Both aspects really blend; for the epistles are addressed to churches which were feeling certain effects of the seeming calamity that had overtaken him whom they in some sense regarded as their founder, and aim at raising them to the writer's own higher standpoint (Eph. iii. 13, vi. 19–22; Col, H. I seq., iv. 8 seq.). It was just here that many of his Asian converts hesitated. They did not realize the all-sufficiency of Christ in the moral sphere; and they viewed their relations with the invisible world of ultimate or heavenly realities in keeping with this fact. They traced the hand of beings belonging to the supernal spheres in their earthly experiences of weal and woe. Hence they dreamed of supplementing what they derived from Christ by help from other spiritual beings. To judge from See also:

• COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE

He obviously (Eph. vi. l r sqq.) believed in the reality of angelic foes, because this See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

3-11; 2 Tim. iii. 5; cf. Jas. i. 27) flowing from Christian faith. A merely intellectual faith, instead of the genuinely Pauline type, involving enthusiastic moral devotion to Christ, tended in practice either to a negative and ritual piety, as at Colossae, or to moral laxity. The latter was sometimes defended on a dualistic theory of " flesh " and " spirit," as two realms radically opposed and morally See also:

• INDEPENDENT

In the so-called Pastoral Epistles the same subject is handled similarly, yet more summarily, as befits one writing instruc- tions to friends familiar with the spirit behind the The Pastorel See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

But these, even as regards style and syntax, are reduced to narrow limits, when once due weight is given to the fresh analogies furnished by the now admitted Imprisonment Epistles (see also Ramsay, Expositor, 1909). This is specially the case with the use of new words of religious import, like " Saviour " or " Deliverer " (Soler, of God and Christ: see Eph. v. 23; Phil. iii. 2o)—the idea of which springs naturally from Paul's own outward state, as well as from the trials of his readers; the " washing " or " laver " of baptism (Eph. v. 26; Tit. iii. 5) ; the Gospel as a revealed " mystery " (Eph. passim, esp. " the mystery " as " great," Eph. v. 32 ; I Tim. iii. 16) ; and the future " appearing " of Christ (so already in 2 Thess. ii. 8; cf. Col. iii. 4).

As to the use of the last See also:

• TERM

All this borrowed language, and much more that is virtually the parlance of the Asian churches, See also:

• HELPS, SIR ARTHUR (1813-1875)

Eph. v. 14), finds its earlier parallel in r Cor. xv. 12, 32–34. ' Add the fact that Clement (ch. vi.) conceives Paul as being joined in the place of See also:

• REWARD

In Titus. the case of Titus, indeed, the churches in question were apparently not of Paul's own foundation, but those in whose welfare he had become interested while sheltering on his voyage to Rome at See also:

• FAIR

15, that " all in Asia " had " turned their backs on him "). Paul's appeal case was not a safe topic for correspondence (cf. Col. iv. 7 seq.), and we gather little directly on the point from his epistles. The long delay in its hearing would be due in part to the accusers' desire to collect evidence sufficient to ensure success even before a tribunal thought to be less amenable to Jewish influence than a procurator's; and, once the first summer was past, the wintry sea (See also:

• MARE

If they succeeded here, Paul's condemnation was only a matter of time. This is the most probable issue of the case (See also:

• PACE (through O. Fr. pas, from Lat. passus, step, properly the stretch of the leg in walking, from pandere, to stretch)
• PACE, RICHARD (c. 1482-1536)

B. Swete (See also:

• COMM

3; Tit. i. 9–11; 2 Tim. ii. 2, iv. 3). To the special local problems Paul addresses himself in this letter, but above all to the bracing of Timothy's somewhat sensitive nature to face the opposition which he must encounter as a Christian leader at such a time (note the similes of the soldier and See also:

• ATHLETE (Gr. aOX177'7r; Lat. athleta)

7), the aim of which is to reassure his See also:

• DISCIPLE

His one comfort is that by the Lord's support he had been delivered from the greatest danger, " the mouth of the See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

Tychicus I had already sent to Ephesus; he will replace you. Pick up Mark and bring him with you—he is so helpful. Bring my cloak, papers and books [copies of the Scriptures), lying in Carpus's hands at Troas "2—perhaps since Acts xx. 6 sqq. " See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

15); and next salutations to Prisca and Aquila, and to the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

Heb. xiii. 23). Early Tradition has little to say about Paul. Possibly the earliest reference outside the New Testament is a Christian addition to the Testament of Benjamin, xi., which describes a Benjamite as " enlightening with new knowledge the Gentiles." The notice in Clement's epistle (ch. v.) to Paul's having borne bonds " seven times " may be mere rhetoric (perhaps based on 2 Cor. Xi. 23). See also:

• IGNATIUS ('Iyvfrior)

150 by an Asian See also:

• PRESBYTER (Gr. apactObTepos, elder, the comparative of IrOo-Oas, an old man)

Paul's personality is one of the most striking in history. No character of the distant past is known to us more fully, both from within and from without, thanks largely to the self-revealing quality of his letters. His was a deep, complex, many-sided nature, varying widely in See also:

• MOOD

4 seq.) were already at work in " the See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

It found its object in a concrete form, stirring both See also:

• IMAGINATION

13-16° cf. Mark iii. 21, " He is beside him-self "). So too his proud, strong-willed spirit gradually put on " the meekness and conciliatoriness of Christ " to such a degree that during the Corinthian troubles his critics contrasted the vigour of his letters with the seeming feebleness of his outward bearing (2 Cor. X. 1, Io). There is no good evidence that his presence was physically weak or unimpressive, even if his stature was small, as tradition has it (see above; cf. Acts xiv. 12). Nor is there any sign that he See also:

• BORE

Gal. iv. 14). But they seem not to have drained his vigour even for great and constant labours of body and mind. His See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

He was the prophet in the originality of his message; he was the theologian in the reflective See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

33, 36). In particular he showed his Christian largeness in his exertions to keep in communion the two sections of Christ's people, to the point of risking his life for this end. In his more personal relations he had the power of feeling and inspiring friendship of the noblest order, a comradeship " in Christ " which fills his letters with delightful touches of loyal affection and trust, even of playfulness on occasion (Philem.). He was a man of heart, with rapid alternations of mood, with nothing of the Stoic "See Lightfoot, Galatians, pp. 183 sqq., who cites King See also:

• ALFRED

7, 10-13). Indeed it was in his impetuous, choleric temperament that there lurked " the last infirmity " of his soul, which at times betrayed him into vehemence of expression (Acts xxii. 4 seq.) and a sweeping harshness of judgment (cf. 2 Cor. vii. 8 seq.), especially where he had detected disingenuous conduct in those who were interfering with his work for Christ or imputing See also:

• BASE

25). Such is not the way of egoists or fanatics. In his Epistles Paul found a fitting vehicle for his personality, whereby to speak not only to his own age but also to kindred souls all down the ages, so coming to spiritual life again and again, when buried under See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

" Paul ") can make no real impression. On the other hand, as the sources of our knowledge of " Paulinism," they impose by their very form certain limits to our effort to reduce his thought to system. See also:

• CANON

See also:

• SCHMIDT, H
• SCHMIDT, HEINRICH JULIAN (1818-1886)
• SCHMIDT, KARL VON (1817-1875)
• SCHMIDT, WILHELM ADOLF (1812-1887)

That Paul himself was conscious of the limitations here implied, is clear from what he says in I Cor. xiii. 9 sqq. as to the transience of the conceptions used by himself and others to body forth divine ideas and relations. After all, his was the theology of a prophet rather than a philosopher. Hence we have to distinguish what may be styled " personal Paulinism," the generalization of his own religious experience, from his apologetic exposition of it over against current Pharisaic Judaism if largely in its terms and also from the speculative setting which it took on in his mind, as his experience enlarged and the thoughts of his converts suggested fresh points of view. It is mainly in this last sphere that development is traceable in Paulinism. Some idea of its nature and extent has already been given in connexion with Paul's life. If one must attempt to reproduce the Pauline " system " as a whole, it is best to take the form in which it appears in the Epistle to the Romans, and then supplement it with the fresh elements in the later epistles (so far as these seem really to be in terms of the writer's thought, rather than his readers'), instead of constructing an See also:

• AMALGAM

12, 14, 19) ; and (the) Law itself, a form of divine claim which acted on man's sinful nature as a challenge and irritant to his egoism, so breeding either positive See also:

• REBELLION

9, 15 seq.). Such mystic union by faith (cf. Eph. iii. 16–19) is the very See also:

• NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring)

To Paul the glorified Jesus or spirit-Christ (I Cor. xv. 45; 2 Cor. iii. 18) of his vision became the Christ mystical of permanent, present Christian faith and experience. In union with Him the believer was already essentially " saved," because possessed of Christ's spirit of Sonship (Rom. viii. 9, 14–17, 30), although his redemption was not complete until the body was included, like the soul, in the penetrating " life " of the Spirit (viii. 23–25, 10 seq.). Accordingly he shifted the centre of gravity in Christian faith decisively from the future aspect of the Kingdom, to the present life of righteousness enjoyed by believers through " the first-fruits of the Spirit " in them. Here lay his great advance on Judaeo-Christianity, with its preponderant eschatological emphasis, along with a more external conception of Jesus, as Jewish Messiah, and of relation to Him. To this mode of thought Christ was not the very principle of the new filial righteousness. In a word, while Judaeo-Christianity only implicitly or unconsciously transcended legalism, Paulinism did so explicitly and consciously, thussafeguarding the future. For Paul's religion was Christocentric in a sense unknown before. Compared with this, his distinctive attitude of soul to Christ, the exact metaphysical conception he formed of Christ's pre-existence was secondary and conditioned by inherited modes of thought.

His own specific contribution was his consciousness of Christ's complete religious efficacy, which marked Him as essentially Divine, the Son of God in the highest sense conceivable under human conditions. ii. Jesus and Paul.—In calling Paulinism " Christocentric," one raises the question as to its relation to the Gospel proclaimed by Jesus. That Paul conceived himself as utterly dependent for his gospel upon Jesus the Christ, is not in doubt, but only how far he unconsciously modified the Gospel by making Christ its subject matter rather than its revealer. In one aspect this is but the question as to Paul's attitude to the historic Jesus over again: yet it is more. Granting that Paul felt his gospel to be in essential agreement with the words and deeds of Jesus of Nazareth, as known to him, it remains to ask whether he did not put all into so fresh a perspective as to change the relative emphasis on points central to the teaching of Jesus, and so alter its spirit. A school of writers, by no means unappreciative of Paul as they understand him, of whom W. See also:

• WREDE, KARL

Surely the new life must appear most fully and movingly sub specie Christi; and the imitatio Christi, in an inner sense which finds in Him the very principle of the new Christian consciousness as to God and man, must be the most direct and morally potent means to the realization of the Christ-type. Thus to say that Paulinism is practically and proximately " Christocentric," is not to deny that it is ultimately and theoretically " Theocentric," if only Christ be regarded as the revealer of God the Father, and that in virtue of a special community of nature with Him as Son. It may be questioned whether Paul attained, or indeed had within his reach in that age, the best intellectual See also:

• EQUIVALENT

To do full See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

For Paul's Life: A. See also:

• NEANDER, JOACHIM (1650–1680)
• NEANDER, JOHANN AUGUST WILHELM (1789-1850)

See also:

• EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST VON (1803-1875)
• EWALD, JOHANNES (1743-1781)

C. McGiffert, The Apostolic Age (1897); O. See also:

• CONE (Gr. Kwvos)

Kirche (2nd ed., 1857) ; E. See also:

• REUSS
• REUSS, EDOUARD GUILLAUME EUGENE (1804–18gr)

1877), also Hibbert Lecture (1885) and Das Urchristentum, vol. i. (2nd ed., 1902; Eng. trans., 1907); A. Sabatier, L'Apdtre Paul (1881); E. Men6goz, Le Pdche et la redemption d'a rhs S. Paul (1882); J. F. See also:

• CLARKE, ADAM (1762?—1832)
• CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877)
• CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769–1822)
• CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810–1888)
• CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER (1833–1899)
• CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP (1846–1881)
• CLARKE, MARY ANNE (c.1776–1852)
• CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675–1729)
• CLARKE, SIR ANDREW (1824-1902)
• CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841– )
• CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (1866- )
• CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE (1798-1878)

C. See also:

• EVERETT
• EVERETT, ALEXANDER HILL (1790-1847)
• EVERETT, CHARLES CARROLL (1829-1900)
• EVERETT, EDWARD (1794–1865)

V.