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Originally appearing in Volume V24, Page 1013 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens) .—CHARACTERISTICS OF THE See also:AGE.—The See also:peculiar and distinguishing characteristics of the See also:present-age are-in every respect remarkable. Unquestionably an extraordinary and universal-See also:change has commenced in-the See also:internal as-well-as-the See also:external-See also:world—in-the-mindof-See also:man as-well-as-in-the habits of society, the one indeed being-the necessary-consequence of the other. A rational See also:consideration of the circumstances in-which-mankind are at-present placed mustshow-us that influences of the most-important and wonderful See also:character have-been and are operating in-such-a-manner-as-to bring-about if-not-a See also:reformation, a thorough revolution in-theorganization of society. Never in-the-See also:history-of-the-world have benevolent and philanthropic institutions for-the See also:relief of domestic and public affliction; See also:societies for-the promotion of manufacturing, commercial and agricultural interests; associations for-the instruction of the masses, the See also:advancement of literature and See also:science, the promotes legibility, and the saving of See also:time is very considerable. Words written thus should be closely connected in sense and awkward joinings avoided. Such phrases are I am, I have, ,/you are, as-a you may, , it would, Lit would not, c— we are, we have, we have never been, '1.z, my dear See also:Recent history. See also:hand See also:writing into See also:Germany in an See also:adaptation of the See also:Taylor-See also:Bertin method. Reischl's (1808) is a modification of Mosengeil's. On Horstig's (1797) are based those of an See also:anonymous writer (See also:Nuremberg, 1798), Heiin (182o), Thon (1825), an anonymous author (See also:Tubingen, 1830), Nowack (183o), Ineichen (1831), an anonymous author (See also:Munich, 1831) and Binder (1855). Mosengeil published a second See also:system (1819) in which Horstig's See also:alphabet is used. On the Mosengeil-Horstig system are based Berthold's (1819) and See also:Stark's (1822). On Danzer's (1800), a See also:close See also:imitation of Taylor's, is based that of Ellison v.

Nidlef (182o). Other systems are those of Leichtlen (1819); J. Brede (1827); Nowack (1834), a system in which the See also:

ellipse is employed as well as the circle; Billharz 1838); Cammerer (1848), a modification of See also:Selwyn's phonography (1847); Schmitt (185o); Frschback (1857), a See also:reproduction of Taylor's; and that of an anonymous author (1872), based on Horstig, Mosengeil and See also:Heim. Nowack, in his later method of 1834, makes a new departure in avoiding right or obtuse angles, and in endeavouring to approximate to See also:ordinary writing. This system Gabelsberger considered to be the best which had appeared down to that date. F. X. Gabelsberger's (1789–1849) Anleitung zur deutschen Redezeichenkunst (Munich, 1834) is the most important of the See also:German systems. The author, an See also:official attached to the Bavarian See also:ministry, commenced his system for private purposes, but was induced to perfect it on See also:account of the summoning of a See also:parliament for See also:Bavaria in 1819. Submitted to public examination in 1829, it was pronounced satisfactory, the See also:report stating that pupils taught on this system executed their trial specimens with the required See also:speed, and read what they had written, and even what others had written, with ease and certainty. The method is based on modifications of geometrical forms, designed to suit the position of the. hand in ordinary writing. The author considered that a system composed of See also:simple geometrical strokes forming determinate angles with each other was unadapted to rapid writing.

He does not recognize all the varieties of See also:

sound, and makes some distinctions which are merely orthographical. Soft sounds have small, See also:light and See also:round signs, while the hard sounds have large, heavy and straight signs. The signs too are derived from the current alphabet, so that one can find the former contained in the latter. Vowels See also:standing between consonants are not literally inserted, but symbolically indicated by either position or shape of the surrounding consonants, without, however, leaving the straight writing See also:line. On Gabelsberger's system is based that of W. Stolze (184o). Faulmann (See also:Vienna, 1875) attempted in his Phonographie to combine the two methods. While Gabelsberger's system remained unchanged in principle, Stolze's split into two divisions, the old and the new. These contain many smaller factions, e.g. Velten's (1876) and See also:Adler's (1877). Arends's (186o) is copied from the See also:French system of Fayet. See also:Roller's (1874) and See also:Lehmann's (1875) are offshoots of See also:Leopold Arends's (1817–1882).

Many other methods have appeared and as rapidly been forgotten. The See also:

schools of Gabelsberger and Stolze can boast of a very extensive shorthand literature. Gabelsberger's system was adapted to See also:English by A. Geiger (See also:Dresden, 1860 and 1873), who adhered too closely to the German See also:original, and more successfully by H. See also:Richter (See also:London, 1886), and Stolze's by G. See also:Michaelis (See also:Berlin, 1863). French.—The earliest French system worthy of See also:notice is that of Coulon de Thevenot (1777), in which the vowels are disjoined from the consonants. Later may be divided into two classes, those derived from Taylor's English system, translated in 1791 by T. P. Bertin, and those invented in See also:France. The latter are (a) Coulon de Thevenot's; (b) systems founded on the principle of the inclination of the usual writing—the best known being those of Fayet (1832) and Senocq (1842); and (c) systems derived from the method of Conen de Prepean (5 See also:editions from 1813 to 1833). See also:Prevost, who till 187o directed the stenographic service of the See also:senate, produced the best modification of Taylor.

Many authors have copied and spoilt this system of Prevost. The best known are Plantier (1844) and Tondeur (1849). On Conen's are based those of Aime-See also:

Paris (1822), Cadres-Marmet (1828), Potel (1842), the Duploye See also:brothers (1868), Guenin, &c. Among See also:amateur writers the Duployan method is best known. See also:Spanish.—The See also:father of Spanish See also:stenography was See also:Don Francisco de Paula See also:Marti, whose system was first published in 1803. The alphabet is a See also:combination of Taylor's and Coulon's. By See also:decree of See also:November 21, 1802, a public professorship of shorthand was founded in See also:Madrid, Marti being the first See also:professor. Founded on Marti's system are those of Serra y Ginesta (1816) and Xamarillo (1811). Many Spanish systems are merely imitations or reproductions of Marti's, and adaptations of Gabelsberger's, Stolze's and See also:Pitman's systems. That of Garriga y Maril (1863) has attained some popularity in See also:Spain. See also:Italian.—Italian See also:translations and adaptations of Taylor's system succeeded one another in considerable See also:numbers from Amanti (1809) to See also:Bianchini (1871). Delpino's (1819) is the best.

The Gabelsberger-Noe system (1863) has gained many followers. Dutch.—J. Reijner's Dutch method (1673) was an adaptation of See also:

Shelton's, and Bussuijt's (1814) of Conen's system. Sommerhausen and Bossaert (1829) received prizes from the See also:government for their productions. Cornelis Steger (1867) translated Taylor's See also:work. Gabelsberger's system was transferred to Dutch by Rietstap (1869), and Stolze's by Reinbold (1881). Adaptations of Gabelsberger's method have also come into use in other countries. See also:Indian.—Mirza Habib Hosain, at the See also:Mahommedan Educational See also:Conference of 1905 in See also:India, introduced a system of See also:Urdu and See also:Hindi shorthand, called " Habib's Samia," for which he was awarded a See also:gold See also:medal. The Pitman system has also been adapted for some Indian See also:languages. schreibekunst (Dresden, 1878) contains a See also:historical See also:sketch of the use of shorthand in See also:ancient and See also:modern times (especially in Germany), a full bibliography of shorthand literature in all languages, a number of lithographed specimens, and a useful See also:index. Circulars of In-formation of the See also:Bureau of See also:Education, No. 2, 1884 (See also:Washington, 1885), by J.

E. Rockwell, contains a very See also:

complete and accurate bibliography of English and See also:American shorthand publications, a See also:chronological See also:list of 483 English and American shorthand authors, notices on shorthand in the See also:United States, on the employment of stenographers in the American courts, on American shorthand societies and magazines, and a beautifully engraved See also:sheet of 112 shorthand alphabets. See also:Isaac Pitman's History of Shorthand (reprinted in the Phonetic See also:Journal of 1884) reviews the See also:principal English systems previous to phonography, and a few See also:foreign ones. The author draws largely on J. H. See also:Lewis's Historical Account of the Rise and Progress of Stenography (London, 1816). Other histories of shorthand are by F. X. Gabelsberger (prefixed to his Anleitung zur deutschen Redezeichenkunst, Munich, 1834), A. See also:Fosse (prefixed to his Cours theorique et pratique de stenographie, Paris, 1849), See also:Scott de Martinville (Paris, 1849), M. See also:Levy (London, 1862) and T. See also:Anderson (London, 1882).

Here too should be mentioned J. Heger's Bemerkenswerthes fiber See also:

die Stenographic (Vienna, 1841), mainly historical; J. Anders's Entwurf einer allgemeinen Gesch. u. Lit. d. Stenographie (Coeslin, 1855) ; R. See also:Fischer's Die Stenographie nach Geschichte, Wesen, u. Bedeutung (See also:Leipzig, 1860) ; Krieg's Katechismus der Stenographie (Leipzig, 1876); Dr Westby-See also:Gibson's See also:Early Shorthand Systems (London, 1882); T. Anderson's Shorthand Systems, with a number of specimens (London, 1884) ; T. A. See also:Reed's Reporter's See also:Guide (London, 1885), and Leaves from the Notebook of T. A. Reed (London, 1885).

Mr C. Walford's Statistical See also:

Review of the Literature of See also:Short-hand (London, 1885) contains valuable See also:information on the circulation of shorthand books and on shorthand See also:libraries. Among later publications dealing fully with the history and practice of shorthand are the Transactions of the London See also:Congress in 1887, and similar publications in connexion with later congresses; Bibliography of Shorthand, by J. Westby-Gibson, LL.D. (London, 1887), treating of English, colonial and American authors; Shorthand Instruction and Practice, by J. E. Rockwell, of the United States Bureau of Education (Washington, 1893), dealing with shorthand work throughout the world; and Examen critique See also:des stenographies franfaises et etrangkres, by Dr See also:Thierry-Mieg (See also:Versailles, 1900).

End of Article: KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)

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