SCHOOLS . As is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

A certain amount of literature was imparted, as, especially in the song-school, See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Though the gymnasium was See also:

• FREE

Meanwhile the intellectual See also:

• HEGEMONY (Gr. i7ye,uovia, leadership, from it-yo-Oat, to lead, the leadership especially of one particular state in a group of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied in Greek history to the position claimed by different individual

The word " school," as well as the word " grammar," seems to be due to Alexandria. Plato in the See also:

• LAWS

Rom. 59) the first grammar school (grammatodidaskaleion) was opened by Spurius Carvilius, a freedman of Carvilius, who was the first Roman to See also:

• DIVORCE

Suetonius says that " the early litteratores also taught rhetoric, and we have many of their See also:

• TREATISES

The staple of instruction in the Roman schools was the See also:

• WORKS

In a letter to the historian See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Grammar and rhetoric schools spread throughout the Roman world and continued substantially unchanged in method and subject to the days of See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Venantius See also:

• FORTUNATUS
• FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS HONORIUS CLEMENTIANUS (530-609)

But in those days the converted See also:

• HEATHEN

It afterwards perished at the See also:

• DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts)

Of schools still existing, we must give the See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

Had Bede been Egbert's master, he could not have failed to mention it in the well-known letter he wrote to him on becoming archbishop, in which he addresses him, not as a master might have written to a pupil, but as a rather humble but lecturing friend. Moreover, Alcuin himself, in the poem on the bishops and saints of the church of York (Hist. Ch. York., Rolls See also:

• SER

To the one the rule of the church, its treasures and lands; to the other the school (studium), the See also:

• CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chcere, through O. Fr. chaire or chaiere, from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. xaOi3pa, seat, cf. "cathedral"; the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chaire

There were " many other masters eminent in the schools, in See also:

• ART

The recognition of this fact is vital to an understanding of the history of schools in England and other modern countries. The history of See also:

• MEDIEVAL

There is not a word in the rule to suggest that education was one of the duties of monks or of the See also:

• OBJECTS

But the other school, the public school, stood on the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

Education and schools were the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

In the history of education in the 9th century the name of See also:

• ALFRED

Warwick School, 1908), the See also:

• EARL

The secular canon, one of the expelled, who wrote the history about 118o, was himself the pupil of Master Peter, son of Athelard; for secular canons married and had children. In the half century which followed the Conquest, the cathedral and many of the collegiate churches were reconstituted and enlarged, the normal number of seven canons being increased, and reaching in some cases as many as fifty. In this reconstitution schools were not forgotten. The statutes called " The Institution of St Osmund," said to have been made at the foundation of Salisbury Cathedral in 1091, are in almost identically the same words as the statutes of Lincoln, York and See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

At Lincoln " no one can teach in the city of Lincoln without his (the chancellor's) See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

Ch. of York, Rolls ser., i. 281) a curious See also:

• TALE (O.Eng. talu, number, account, story; the word is common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Zahl, number, Erzahlung, narrative, Du. taal, speech, language)

It has been indeed repeatedly asserted that the cathedral schools were choristers' schools and taught nothing but the psalter and a little elementary Latin grammar. The assertion is founded on a complete misunderstanding. It is a question whether there were any choristers in the 12th century or whether they are not a later introduction, the canons and their vicars choral or choir deputies at first doing the singing themselves. Choristers at Salisbury are not mentioned in the Institution of St Osmund, and they first appear in the 1220 edition of that document. At Lincoln we first find choristers mentioned in a statute of 1236, " To the Precentor belongs the instruction and discipline of the boys and their admission and ordering in choir." At York the 1307 edition of the statutes says " the collection (i.e. appointment of masters) to song schools belongs to the singer," now called precentor, " and cases affecting them ought to be heard and decided by him, though See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

At Beverley in 1312 a contest between the grammar school-master and the song schoolmaster took place as to whether the grammar schoolmaster was bound to admit all choristersfree, or only the original number of seven. It was held after evidence as to old See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

There is, however, some excuse for the notion that monasteries kept them, in the fact that in England, differing from the rest of the world, the cathedral churches had, in many of the chief places, notably Canterbury, Winchester and See also:

• WORCESTER
• WORCESTER, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF
• WORCESTER, JOHN TIPTOFT, EARL OF (1427—1470)
• WORCESTER, WILLIAM (c. 1415-c. 1482)

1898). Similar evidence is forthcoming at Worcester, See also:

• NORWICH
• NORWICH, GEORGE GORING, EARL OF (1583?-1663)

County Hist.: Suffolk Schools, ii.). The substitution of regulars for seculars ceased in the latter part of the 12th century, owing chiefly to the secular clergy at length, under papal pressure, accepting the rule of See also:

• CELIBACY (Lat. caelibatus, from caelebs, unmarried)

These were ordinary colleges of secular canons with grammar schools attached, and the schools outlived the colleges at the Reformation. They were contemporary with the first university colleges. The college of St See also:

• NICHOLAS
• NICHOLAS (1841– )
• NICHOLAS (or NICLAES), HENRY (or HENDRIK) (c. 1501-C. 158o)
• NICHOLAS, SIR EDWARD (1593-1669)
• NICHOLAS, ST

The scholars were admitted at ten years old and might stay to twenty-five, but were expected to be ordained sub-deacons and retire at twenty. They were lodged in a separate hall (Aida Puerorum), but waited on the sick and infirm monks who lived in the infirmary. At first they were taught wholly in the city or archbishop's grammar school. But by 1362 they had a separate grammar master, probably only as a house master, as the one mentioned in that year found See also:

• KINGSTON
• KINGSTON, ELIZABETH, DUCHESS OF (1720-1788)
• KINGSTON, WILLIAM HENRY GILES (1814-188o)

This almonry school for charity boys is the only school, other than the novices' school, which existed at Westminster Abbey before, on its See also:

• CON

Taken altogether these almonry schools provided for the education of, or gave exhibitions to, a large number of boys, probably not less than moo in all. But they were not " monastic "; the boys themselves were not novices or oblates, and were looked after and taught by seculars. Various efforts were made in the 14th century and onwards to make the monks themselves learned. By papal statute in 1337 the Benedictine monasteries were each to send 5% of their number to the universities. Though Gloucester College had been established at Oxford in 1283 (reorganized in 1291) to receive them, not i% of the monks went there, for there is See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

1892) hardly one had its grammar master as It ought to have had. In 1495 Osney Abbey provided for the monks a gramma_ master who was a secular (See also:

• BOASE, HENRY SAMUEL (1799-1883)

Fitzstephen describes the contests of the scholars from it and the other two schools on saints' days, when the elders contended in logic and rhetoric, and the boys " See also:

• VIE

Though this very rational innovation thus began in Oxford, yet a new edition of the Oxford Grammar School Statutes in the late 14th or early 15th century provided that the masters should in construing teach the meaning of words by turns in English and French, " lest the French tongue should be utterly lost," as it came to be. It is extremely difficult to ascertain what books were actually read in English schools before the 16th century. Whether the Christian poets such as Sedulius and Juvencus, the staple of Alcuin and recommended by See also:

• COLET, JOHN (1467?-1519)
• COLET, LOUISE (1810–1876)

The wide knowledge of the classics shown by Chaucer, who no doubt, like Becket before him and See also:

• MILTON
• MILTON, JOHN (1608–1674)

In 1406 the statute of artisans, while putting numerous restrictions on their freedom, adds, " provided always that every man or woman of whatever estate or See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

William of Wykeham would not have provided for " ro sons of noblemen and gentlemen, special See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

An undated Oxford statute of the 15th century fixes the upward limit of grammar school fees at 8d. a term (Reg. Giffard, f. 341). The tariff settled by the bishop of Norwich, for See also:

• IPSWICH

There can be little doubt that the cathedral schools were intended to be free just as much as the church services. Yet it had become necessary by the Lateran Council in 1179 for the canon law definitely to provide that, " to prevent the poor who could not be helped by their parents' means from being deprived of the opportunity of learning and advancement," every cathedral church should provide a competent See also:

• BENEFICE (Lat. beneficium, benefit)

In 1441 St See also:

• ANTHONY, SAINT
• ANTHONY, SUSAN BROWNELL (1820-1906)

It was converted into a free school by endowments given by one of the gild priests in 1482, and has continued without intermission to the present day (Vict. Co. (See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

School exercises in Greek at Winchester under Edward VI. are preserved, but Sir Thomas Pope says it had been dropped at Eton under Mary. There is no evidence of it at St Paul's before Elizabeth's reign. At the time of the meeting of the Reformation See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

In 1548 all the endowed schools in England, other than the cathedral schools, were threatened and the vast majority destroyed by the act for the dissolution of colleges andchantries. Only Winchester, Eton and Magdalen College school were exempted, and they owed their exemption to being regarded as part of the universities with which (through New College, King's and Magdalen) they were connected; and even they had been iocluded. in the similar act passed in 1546, which was, however, permissive and lasted for Henry VIII.'s life only. The Chantries Act, while providing for the abolition of colleges, gilds and chantries, contained indeed provision for the continuance by special order of all schools attached to them, which were grammar schools by foundation, and for their increase and enlargement out of the confiscated lands. Unfortunately there was neither time nor money to spare for the purpose. A See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

Most of the later refoundations were by letters patent. The first refoundation by patent for a school per se under a governing body created ad hoc was that of See also:

• SHERBORNE

The visitations of the chapter of Southwell as ordinaries in their liberty show schoolmasters in many small towns and villages, some of them " popish recusants," and others inhibited until they had been duly licensed. How far they taught grammar schools and not elementary schools is not very clear. But one unfortunate result of the suppression of the song schools was that attempts were now made, as at See also:

• WELLINGBOROUGH

The growth of Greek in all the great schools, and the attempt, as theological discussion grew keener towards the end of the reign, to acclimatize See also:

• HEBREW

During the Civil War and the Commonwealth, when new ideas on every subject were broached, education received new impetus, and under the fostering care of parliament schools were increased in numbers. Many new schools were created, many old schools obtained an increase of endowment and efficiency. Among the great schools it was during this time that Westminster, with a See also:

• PARLIAMENTARY

They had not even properly maintained the school buildings. At Canterbury, parliament had at once to spend the large sum of £50 in repairing the school and masters' houses; and at Rochester similar amounts. The committee augmented salaries at Chester, the master from £22 to £36 and the usher from £10 to £19; at Salisbury the master from £10 to £2o and the usher from £5 to £15; at See also:

• CHICHESTER

But none of the good work of parliament was allowed to stand at the Restoration, and the revenues appropriated to education went back to the prebendaries whom Archbishop See also:

• CRANMER, THOMAS (1489-1556)

Next year in See also:

• COX, DAVID (1783-1859)
• COX, JACOB DOLSON (1828-1900)
• COX, KENYON (1856– )
• COX, RICHARD (I3oo ?–1581)
• COX, SAMUEL (1826–1893)
• COX, SAMUEL HANSON (1793-1880)
• COX, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM (1827-1902)

They were conducted, however, like private schools—the town boys at Westminster, the dames' houses at Eton, the Commoners' houses at Winchester, being in fact private ventures. The See also:

• PROCESS

Often for half a century no more than half a dozen boys had been known to attend the school; sometimes this was the case for a century, while a large proportion of the schools had been definitely converted into elementary schools, and See also:

• BAD, BCD

" It may be observed that now the rectors are not required to teach boys themselves, but to see them taught. The duty of the See also:

• PARSON

Next year, 1402, William Lowyke, probably John's son, was appointed to the reading and song school, an appointment repeated in 1412, while another person was appointed to the two schools in 1426. But in 1456 the reading school was combined with the grammar school under John Armandson, B.A. At Northallerton in 1426 the reading and song school are combined; the grammar school separate; but in 1440 reading, grammar and song schools were combined in the hands of John Leuesham, chaplain. We owe our knowledge of these schools to the casual preservation in the British Museum of a letter book of the prior of Durham cathedral monastery, who was the " Ordinary " for the Yorkshire possessions of St See also:

• CUTHBERT, SAINT (d. 687)

At Aldwinkle, Northants, the chantry priest was by foundation See also:

• ORDINANCE
• ORDINANCE, or ORDONNANCE

The first duty of a song or of a reading school being "to teach a See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

At great impetus was given to them by the Common-See also:

• WEALTH

In that year the curious development of " circulating schools " was started in Wales, the masters residing for a certain time in one See also:

• DISTRICT