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ABC where the See also:line cuts the See also:curve in fig. 22, A and C correspond to See also:stable states and B to an unstable one. The See also:state of things represented by a point P on the characteristic curve when the slope is downward cannot be stable unless there is in the See also:external See also:circuit a resistance greater than that represented by the tangent of the inclination of the tangent to the curve at P to the See also:horizontal See also:axis. If we keep the external electromotive force the same and gradually increase the resistance in the leads, the line L M will become steeper and steeper. C will move to the See also:left so that the current will diminish; when the line gets so steep that it touches the curve at C', any further increase in the resistance will produce an abrupt See also:change in the current; for now the state of things represented by a point near A' is the only stable state. Thus if the B C See also:part of the curve corresponded to a luminous See also:discharge and the A part to a dark discharge, we see that if the electromotive force is kept See also:constant there is a minimum value of the current for the luminous discharge. If the current is reduced below this value, the discharge ceases to be luminous, and there is an abrupt diminution in the current. See also:Cathode Rays.—When the See also:gas in the discharge See also:tube is at a very See also:low pressure some remarkable phenomena occur in the neighbourhood of the cathode. These seem to have been first observed by See also:Plucker (Pogg. See also:Ann. 107, p. 77; 116, p. 45) who noticed on the walls of the See also:glass tube near the cathode a greenish See also:phosphorescence, which he regarded as due to rays proceeding from the cathode, striking against the sides of the tube, and then travelling back to the cathode. He found that the See also:action of a magnet on these rays was not the same as the action on the part of the discharge near the See also:positive electrode. Hittorf (Pogg. Ann. 136, p. 8) showed that the See also:agent producing the phosphorescence was intercepted by a solid, whether conductor or insulator, placed between the cathode and the sides of the tube. He regarded the phosphorescence as caused by a See also:motion starting from the cathode and travelling in straight lines through the gas. Goldstein (Monat. der Berl. Akad., 1876, p. 24) confirmed this See also:discovery of Hittorf's, and further showed that a distinct, though not very See also:sharp, See also:shadow is See also:cast by a small See also:object placed near a large See also:plane cathode. This is a See also:proof that the rays producing the phosphorescence must be emitted almost normally from the cathode, and not, like the rays of See also:light from a luminous See also:surface, in all directions, for such rays would not produce a perceptible shadow if a small See also:body were placed near the plane. Goldstein regarded the phosphorescence as due to waves in the See also:ether, for whose See also:propagation the gas was not necessary. See also:Crookes (Phil. Trans., 1879, pt. i. p. 135; pt. ii. pp. 587, 661), who made many remarkable researches in this subject, took a different view. He regarded the rays as streams of negatively electrified particles projected normally from the cathode with See also:great velocity, and, when the pressure is sufficiently low, reaching the sides of the tube, and by their impact producing phosphorescence and See also:heat. The rays on this view are deflected by a magnet, because a magnet exerts a force on a charged moving body. These rays striking against glass make it phosphorescent. The See also:colour of the phosphorescence depends on the See also:kind of glass; thus the light from soda glass is a yellowish See also:green, and that from See also:lead glass See also:blue. Many other bodies phosphoresce when exposed to these rays, and in particular the phosphorescence of somegems, such as rubies and diamonds, is exceedingly vivid. The spectrum of the phosphorescent light is generally continuous, but Crookes showed that the phosphorescence of some of the rare earths, such as See also:yttrium, gives a spectrum of See also:bright bands, and he founded on this fact a spectroscopic method of great importance. Goldstein (Wied. Ann. S4, p. 371) discovered that the haloid salts of the See also:alkali metals change colour under the rays, See also:sodium chloride, for example, becoming See also:violet. The coloration is a surface one, and has been traced by E. See also:Wiedemann and See also:Schmidt (Wied. Ann. 54, p. 618) to the formation of a sub-chloride. Chlorides of See also:tin, See also:mercury and lead also change colour in the same way. E. Wiedemann (Wied. Ann. 56, p. 201) discovered another remarkable effect, which he called thermo-luminescence; he found that many bodies after being exposed to the cathode rays possess for some See also:time the See also:power of becoming luminous when their temperature is raised to a point far below that at which they become luminous in the normal state. Substances belonging to the class called by See also:van 't Hoff solid solutions exhibit this See also:property of thermo-luminescence to a remarkable extent. They are formed when two salts, one greatly in excess of the other, are simultaneously precipitated from a 'See also:solution. A trace of MnSO4 in CaSO4 shows very brilliant thermo-Iuminescence. The impact of cathode rays produces after a time perceptible changes in the glass. Crookes (Phil. Trans. pt. ii, 1879, p. 645) found that after glass has been phosphorescing for some time under the cathode rays it seems to get tired, and the phosphorescence is not so bright as it was initially. Thus, for example, when the shadow of a Maltese See also:cross is thrown on the walls of the tube as in fig. 23, if after the discharge has been going on for some time the cross is shaken down or a new cathode used whose line of See also:fire does not cut the cross, the See also:pattern of the cross will still be seen on the glass, but it will now be brighter instead of darker than the surrounding portion. The portions shielded by the cross, not being tired by being made to phosphoresce for a See also:long time, See also:respond more vigorously to the stimulus than those portions which have not been protected. See also:Skinner (Prot. Camb. Phil. See also:Soc. ix. p. 371) and See also:Thomson found on the glass which had been exposed to the rays gelatinous filaments, apparently See also:silica, resulting from the reduction of the glass. A reducing action was also noticed by See also:Villard (Journ. de phys. 3, viii. p. 140) and Wehnelt (Wied. Ann. 67, p. 421). It can be well shown by letting the rays fall on a See also:plate of oxidized See also:copper, when the part struck by the rays will become bright. The rays heat bodies on which they fall, and if they are concentrated by using as a cathode a portion of a spherical surface, the heat at the centre becomes so great that a piece of See also:platinum See also:wire can be melted or a See also:diamond charred. Measurements of the See also:heating effects of the rays have been made by Thomson (Phil. See also:Hag. [5], 44, p. 293) and Cady (Ann. der Phys. 1, p. 678). Crookes (Phil. Trans., 1879, pt. i. p. 152) showed that a See also:vane mounted as in a See also:radiometer is set in rotation by the rays, the direction of the rotation being the same as would be produced by a stream of particles proceeding from the cathode. The See also:movement is not due to the momentum imparted to the vanes by the rays, but to the difference in temperature between the sides of the vanes, the rays making the See also:side against which they strike hotter than the other. Effect of a Magnet.—The rays are deflected by a magnet, so that the See also:distribution of phosphorescence over the glass and the shape and position of the shadows cast by bodies in the tube are altered by the proximity of a magnet. The See also:laws of magnetic deflection of these rays have been investigated by Plucker (Pogg. A Ann. 103, p. 88), Hittorf (Pogg. Ann. 136, p. 213), Crookes (Phil. Trans., 1879, pt. I, p. 557), and Schuster (Proc. See also:Roy. Soc. 4.7, p. 526). The deflection is the same as that of negatively electrified particles travelling along the path of the rays. Such particles would in a magnetic See also: Phil. Soc. 9, p. 243) has shown that if the potential difference between the electrodes is kept the same the magnetic deflection is See also:independent of the nature of the gas filling the discharge tube; this was tested with gases so different as See also:air, See also:hydrogen, carbonic See also:acid and methyl iodide. Charge of Negative See also:Electricity carried by the Rays.—We have seen that the rays are deflected by a magnet, as if they were particles charged with negative electricity. Perrin (Comptes rendus, 121, p. 1130) showed by See also:direct experiment that a stream of negative electricity is associated with the rays. A modification made by Thomson of Perrin's experiment is sketched in fig. 24 (Phil. Mag. 48, p. 478). The rays start from the cathode A, and pass through a slit in a solid See also:brass See also:rod B fitting tightly into the See also:neck of the tube. This rod is connected with See also:earth and used as the anode. The rays after passing through the slit travel through the See also:vessel C. D and E are two insulated See also:metal cylinders insulated from each other, and each having a slit cut in its See also:face so as to enable the rays to pass into the inside of the inner See also:cylinder, which is connected with an electro- See also:meter, the See also:outer cylinder being connected with the earth. The two cylinders are placed on the far side of the vessel, but out of the direct line of fire of the rays. When the rays go straight through the slit there is only a very small negative charge com- municated to the inner cylinder, but when they are deflected by a magnet so that the phosphorescent patch falls on the slit in the outer E1ac/ro~+a~e~ cylinder the inner cylinder charge, the increase coinciding very sharply with the See also:appearance of the phosphorescent patch on the slit. When the patch is so much deflected by the magnet that it falls below the slit, the negative charge in the cylinder again disappears. This experiment shows that the cathode rays are accompanied by a stream of negative electrification. The same apparatus can be used to show that the passage of cathode rays through a gas makes it a conductor of electricity. For if the induction coil is kept See also:running and a stream of the rays kept steadily going into the inner cylinder, the potential of the inner cylinder reaches a definite negative value below which it does not fall, however long the rays may be kept going. The cylinder reaches a steady state in which the gain of negative electricity from the cathode rays is equal to the loss by leakage through the conducting gas, the conductivity being produced by the passage of the rays through it. If the inner cylinder is charged up initially with a greater negative charge than corresponds to the steady state, on turning the rays on to the cylinder the negative charge will decrease and not increase until it reaches the steady state. The conductivity produced by the passage of cathode rays through a gas diminishes rapidly with the pressure. When rays pass through a gas at a low pressure, they are deflected by an electric field; when the pressure of the gas is higher the conductivity it acquires when the cathode rays pass through it is so large that the potential gradient cannot reach a sufficiently high value to produce an appreciable deflection. Thus the cathode rays carry a charge of negative electricity; the experiment described on See also:page 875 (fig. 13) shows that they are deflected by an electric field as if they were negatively electrified, and are acted on by a magnetic force ,in just the way this force would See also:act on a negatively electrified body moving along the path of the rays. There is therefore every See also:reason for believing that they are charges of negative electricity in rapid motion. By measuring the deflection produced by magnetic and electric See also:fields we can determine the velocity with which these particles moved and the ratio of the mass of the particle to the charge carried by it. We may conclude from the experiments that the value of m/e for the particles constituting the cathode rays is of the See also:order 1/1.7X I o7, and we have seen that m/e has the same value in all the other cases of negative ions in a gas at low pressure for which it has been measured—viz. for the ions produced when ultra-violet light falls on a metal plate, or when an incandescent See also:carbon filament is surrounded by a gas at a low pressure, and for the particles given out by radio-active bodies. We have also seen that the value of the charge on the gaseous See also:ion, in all cases in which it has been measured—viz. the ions produced by RSntgen and See also:uranium See also:radiation, by ultra-violet light, and by the discharge of electrification from a point—is the same in magnitude as the charge carried by the hydrogen See also:atom in the See also:electrolysis of solutions. The mass of the hydrogen alone is, however, 10–4 times this charge, while the mass of the See also:carriers of negative electrification is only I/I.7 X Io7 times the charge; hence the mass of the carriers of the negative electrification is only ph-o- of the mass of the hydrogen atom. We are thus, by the study of the electric discharge, forced to recognize the existence of masses very much smaller than the smallest mass hitherto recognized. Direct determinations of the velocity of the cathode rays have been made by J. J. Thomson (Phil. Mag. 38, p. 358), who measured the See also:interval between the appearance of phosphorescence on two pieces of glass placed at a known distance apart, and by Maiorana (Nuovo Cimento, 4, 6, p. 336) and Battelli and Stefanini (Phys. Zeit. I, p. 51), who measured the interval between the arrival of the negative charge carried by the rays at two places separated by a known distance. The values of the velocity got in this way are much smaller than the values got by the indirect methods previously described: thus J. J. Thomson at a fairly high pressure found the velocity to be 2 X to' cm./sec. Maiorana found values ranging between to' and 6Xcm./sec., and Battelli and Stefanini values ranging from 6 X toe to 1.2 X Io7. In these methods it is very difficult to eliminate the effect of the interval which elapses between the arrival of the rays and the attainment by the means of detection, such as the phosphorescence of the glass or the deflection of the See also:electrometer, of sufficient intensity to affect the senses. Transmission of Cathode Rays through Solids—Lenard Rays.—It was for a long time believed that all solids were absolutely opaque to these rays, as Crookes and Goldstein had proved that very thin glass, and even a film of See also:collodion, cast intensely See also:black shadows. See also:Hertz (Wied. Ann. 45, p. 28), however, showed that behind a piece of See also:gold-See also:leaf or See also:aluminium See also:foil an appreciable amount of phosphorescence occurred on the glass, and that the phosphorescence moved when a magnet was brought near. A most important advance was next made by Lenard (Wied. Ann. 51, p. 225), who got the cathode rays to pass from the inside of a discharge tube to the air outside. For this purpose he used'a tube like that shown in fig. 25. 
The cathode K is an aluminium disc 1.2 cm. in See also:diameter fastened to a stiff wire, which is surrounded by a glass tube. The anode A is a brass See also:strip partly surrounding the cathode. The end of the tube in front of the cathode is closed by a strong metal cap, fastened in with marine See also:glue, in the See also:middle of which a hole 1.7 mm. in diameter is bored, and covered with a piece of very thin aluminium foil about •0026 mm. in thickness. The aluminium window is in metallic contact with the cap, and this and the anode are connected with the earth. The tube is then exhausted until the cathode rays strike against the window. Diffuse light spreads from the window into the air outside the tube, and can be traced in a dark See also:room for a distance of several centimetres. From the window, too, proceed rays which, like the cathode rays, can produce phosphorescence, for certain bodies phosphoresce when placed in the neighbourhood of the window. This effect is conveniently observed by the platino-cryanide screens used to detect See also:Rontgen radiation. The properties of the rays outside the tube resemble in all respects those of cathode rays; they are deflected by a magnet and by an electric field, they ionize the gas through which they pass and make it a conductor of electricity, and they affect a photographic plate and change the colour of the haloid salts of the alkali metals. As, however, it is convenient to distinguish between cathode rays outside and inside the tube, we shall See also:call the former Lenard rays. In air at atmospheric pressure the Lenard rays spread out very diffusely. If the aluminium window, instead of opening into the air, opens into another tube which can be exhausted, it is found that the See also:lower the pressure of the gas in this tube the farther the rays travel and the less diffuse they are. By filling the tube with different gases Lenard showed that the greater the See also:density of the gas the greater is the absorption of these rays. Thus they travel farther in hydrogen than in any other gas at the same pressure. Lenard showed, too, that if he adjusted the pressure so that the density of the gas in this tube was the same—if, for example, the pressure when the tube was filled with See also:oxygen was of the pressure when it was filled with hydrogen—the absorption was constant whatever the nature of the gas. See also:Becker (Ann. der Phys. 17, p. 381) has shown that this See also:law is only approximately true, the absorption by hydrogen being abnormally large, and by the inert monatomic gases, such as See also:helium and See also:argon, abnormally small. The distance to which the Lenard rays penetrate into this tube depends upon the pressure in the discharge tube; if the exhaustion in the latter is very high, so that there is a large potential difference between the cathode and the anode, and therefore a high velocity for the cathode rays, the Lenard rays will penetrate farther than when the pressure in the discharge tube is higher and the velocity of the cathode rays smaller. Lenard showed that the greater the penetrating power of his rays the smaller was their magnetic deflection, and therefore the greater their velocity; thus the greater the velocity of the cathode rays the greater is the velocity of the Lenard rays to which they give rise. For very slow cathode rays the absorption by different gases departs altogether from the density law, so much so that the absorption of these rays by hydrogen is greater than that by air (Lenard, Ann. der Phys. 12, p. 732). Lenard (Wied. Ann. 56, p. 255) studied the passage of his rays through solids as well as through gases, and arrived at the very interesting result that the absorption of a substance depends only upon its density, and not upon its chemical See also:composition or See also:physical state; in other words, the amount of absorption of the rays when they See also:traverse a given distance depends only on the quantity of See also:matter they cut through in the distance. McClelland (Proc. Roy. Soc. 61, p. 227) showed that the rays carry a charge of negative electricity, and M'Lennan measured the amount of ionization rays of given intensity produced in different gases, finding that if the pressure is adjusted so that the density of the different gases is the same the number of ions per cubic centimetre is also the same. In this case, as Lenard has shown, the absorption is the same, so that with the Lenard rays, as with uranium and probably with Rontgen rays, equal absorption corresponds to equal ionization. A convenient method for producing Lenard rays of great intensity has been described by See also:Des Coudres (Wied. Ann. 62, p. 134). Diffuse Reflection of Cathode Rays.—When cathode rays fall upon a surface, whether of an insulator or a conductor, cathode rays start from the surface in all directions. This phenomenon, which was discovered by Goldstein (Wied. Ann. 62, p. 134), has been investigated by Starke (Wied. Ann. 66, p. 49; Ann. der Phys. 111, p. 75), See also:Austin and Starke (Ann. der Phys. 9, p. 271), See also: Gehrcke showed that among the reflected rays there were a large number which had a much smaller velocity than the incident ones. According to Campbell-Swinton the " diffuse " reflection is accompanied by a certain amount of " specular " reflection. Lenard, who used slower cathode rays than Austin and Starke, could not detect in the scattered rays any with velocities comparable with that of the incident rays; he obtained copious supplies of slow rays whose See also:speed did not depend on the angle of incidence of the See also:primary rays (Ann. der Phys. 15, p. 485). When the angle of incidence is very oblique the surface struck by the rays gets positively charged, showing that the secondary rays are more numerous than the primary. Repulsion of two Cathode Streams.—Goldstein discovered that if in a tube there are two cathodes connected together, the cathodic rays from one cathode are deflected when they pass near the other. Experiments bearing on this subject have been made by Crookes and Wiedemann and See also:Ebert. The phenomena may be described by saying that the repulsion of the rays from a cathode A by a cathode B is only appreciable when the rays from A pass through the Crookes dark space See also:round B. This is what we should expect if we remember that the electric field In the dark space is far stronger than in the See also:rest of the discharge, and that the gas in the other parts of the tube is rendered a conductor by the passage through it of the cathode rays, and therefore incapable of transmitting electrostatic repulsion. Scattering of the Negative Electrodes.—In addition to the cathode rays, portions of metal start normally from the cathode and See also:form a metallic See also:deposit on the walls of the tube. The amount of this deposit varies very much with the metal. Crookes (Proc. Roy. Soc. 50, p. 88) found that the quantities of metal torn from electrodes of the same See also:size, in equal times, by the same current, are in the order Pd, Au, Ag, Pb, Sn, Pt, Cu, Cd Ni, In, Fe. . . . In air there is very little deposit from an Al cathode, but it is abundant in tubes filled with the monatomic gases, mercury vapour, argon or helium. The scattering increases as the density of the gas diminishes. The particles of metal are at low pressures deflected by a magnet, though not nearly to the same extent as the cathode rays. According to Grandquist, the loss of See also:weight of the cathode in a given time is proportional to the square of the current; it is therefore not, like the loss of the cathode in See also:ordinary electrolysis, proportional to the quantity of current which passes through it. Positive Rays or" Canalstrahlen."—Goldstein (Berl. Sitzungsb. 39, p. 691) found that with a perforated cathode certain rays occurred behind the
cathode which were not
,4
k"Y
appreciably deflected by a
magnet; these he called See also:Canal-strahlen, but we shall, for reasons which will appear later, call them " positive rays."
Their appearance is well
shown in fig. 26, taken from a See also:paper by Wehnelt (Wied. Ann. 67, p. 421) in which they are represented at B. Goldstein found
that their colour depends on the gas in which they are formed, being gold-colour in air and See also:nitrogen, See also:rose - colour in hydrogen, yellowish rose in oxygen, and greenish See also: Thus when the positive rays fall on a See also:pool of the liquid alloy of sodium and See also:potassium the specks of oxide on the surface shine with a bright yellow light while the untarnished part of the surface is quite dark. W. Wien (Wied. Ann. 65, p. 445) measured the values of e/m for the particles forming the positive rays. Other measurements have been made by Ewers (Wied. Ann. 69, p. 167) and J. J. Thomson (Phil. Mag. 13, p. 561). The See also:differences between the values of e/m for the cathode and positive rays are very remarkable. For cathode rays whose velocity does not approach that of light, See also:elm is always equal to I.7 X Io8, while for the positive rays the greatest value of this quantity yet observed is Io4, which is also the value of e/m for the hydrogen ions in the electrolysis of dilute solutions. In some experiments made by J. J. Thomson (Phil. Mag., 14, p. 359) it was found that when the pressure of the gas was not too low the bright spot produced by the impact of a See also:pencil of these rays on a phosphorescent See also:screen is deflected by electric and magnetic forces into a continuous See also:band extending on both sides of the undeflected position. The portion on one side is in general much fainter than that on the other. The direction of this deflection shows that it is produced by particles charged with negative electricity, while the brighter band is due to particles charged with positive electricity. The negatively electrified particles which produce the band c.c are not corpuscles, for from the electric and magnetic deflections we can find the value of elm. As this proves to be equal to ro4, we see that the mass of the See also:carrier of the negative charge is comparable with that of an atom, and so very much greater than that of a corpuscle. At very low pressures part of the phosphorescence disappears, while the upper portion breaks up into two patches (fig. 27). For one of these the maximum value of elm is Io4 and for the other 5XIO3. At low pressures the appearance of the patches and the values of e/m are the same whether the tube is filled originally with air, hydrogen or helium. In some of the experiments the tube was exhausted until the pressure was too low to allow the discharge to pass. A very small quantity of the gas under investigation was then admitted into the tube, just sufficient to allow the discharge to pass, and the deflection of the phosphorescent patch measured. The following gases were admitted into the tube, air, carbonic oxide, oxygen, hydrogen, helium, argon and neon, but whatever the gas the appearance of the phosphorescence was the same; in every case there were two patches, for one of which elm= Io4 and for the other elm= 5 X Io3. In helium at higher pressures another patch was observed, for which elm= 2.5 X 108. The continuous band into which the phosphorescent spot is See also:drawn out when the pressure is not exceedingly low, which involves the existence of particles for which the mean value of e/m varies from zero to Io4, can be explained as follows. The rays on their way to the phosphorescent screen have to pass through gas which is ionized by the passage through it of the positive rays; this gas will therefore contain See also:free corpuscles. The particles which constitute the rays start with a charge of positive electricity. Some of these particles in their See also:journey through thegas attract a corpuscle whose negative charge neutralizes the positive charge on the particle. The particles when in this neutral state may be ionized by collision and reacquire a positive charge, or by attracting another particle may become negatively charged, and this See also:process may be repeated several times on their journey to the phosphorescent screen. Thus some of the particles, instead of being positively charged for the whole of the time they are exposed to the electric and magnetic forces, may be for a part of that time without a charge or even have a negative charge. The deflection of a particle is proportional to the See also:average value of its charge whilst under the See also:influence of the deflecting forces. Thus if a particle is without a charge for a part of the time, its deflection will be less than that of a particle which has retained its positive charge for the whole of its journey, while the few particles which have a negative charge for a longer time than they have a positive will be deflected in the opposite direction to the See also:main portion and will produce the tail (fig. 27). A similar explanation will apply to the positive rays discovered by Villard (Comptes rendus, 143, p. 674) and J. J. Thomson (Phil. Mag. 13, p. 359), which travel in the opposite direction to the rays we have been considering, i.e. they travel away from the cathode and in the direction of the cathode's rays; these rays are sometimes called " See also:retrograde " rays. These as far as has been observed have always the same maximum value of e/m, i.e. Io4, and there are a considerable number of negative ones always mixed with them. The maximum velocity of both the positive and retrograde rays is about. 2 X Io8 cm./sec. and varies very little with the potential difference between the electrodes in the tube in which they are produced (J. J. Thomson, Phil. Mag., Dec. 1909). The positive rays show, when the pressure is not very low, the line spectrum of the gas through which they pass. An exceedingly valuable set of observations on this point have been made by See also:Stark and his pupils (Physik. Zeit. 6, p. 892; Ann. der Phys. 21, pp. 40, 457). Stark has shown that in many gases, notably hydrogen, the spectrum shows the Doppler effect, and he has been able to calculate in this way the velocity of the positive rays. Anode Rays.—Gehrcke and Reichenhein (Ann. der Phys. 25, p. 861) have found that when the anode consists of a mixure of sodium and lithium chloride raised to a high temperature either by the discharge itself or by an independent heating circuit, very conspicuous rays come from the anode when the pressure of .the gas in the discharge tube is very low, and a large coil is used to produce the discharge. The determination of e/m for these rays showed that they are positively charged atoms of sodium or lithium, moving with very considerable velocity; in some of Gehrcke's experiments the maximum velocity was as great as 1.8XIO7 cm./sec. though the average was about Io7 cm./sec. These velocities are less than those of the positive rays whose maximum velocity is about 2XIo8 cm./sec. (J. J. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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