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HEBREW

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Originally appearing in Volume V13, Page 169 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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HEBREW See also:

LANGUAGE provinces of the See also:Persian See also:empire Aramaic was the See also:official language, spoken not only in See also:Palestine but in all the surrounding countries, even in See also:Egypt and among Arab tribes such as the Nabateans. It is natural, therefore, that it should See also:influence and finally supplant Hebrew in popular use, so that See also:translations even of the Old Testament eventually appear in it (TARGUMS). Mean-while Hebrew did not become a dead language—indeed it can hardly be said ever to have died, since it has continued in use till the See also:present See also:day for the purposes of See also:ordinary See also:life among educated See also:Jews in all parts of the See also:world. It gradually became a See also:literary rather than a popular See also:tongue, as appears from the See also:style of the later books of the Old Testament (Chron., See also:Dan., See also:Eccles.), and from the Hebrew See also:text of See also:Ecclesiasticus (c. 170 B.e:). During the 1st See also:century B.C. and the 1st century A.D. we have no See also:direct See also:evidence of its characteristics. After that See also:period there is a See also:great development in the language of the Mishna. It was still living Hebrew, although mainly confined to the See also:schools, with very clear See also:differences from the biblical language. In the Old Testament the range of subjects was limited. In the Mishna it was very much extended. Matters See also:relating to daily life had to be discussed, and words and phrases were adopted from what was no doubt the popular language of an earlier period. A great many See also:foreign words were also introduced.

The language being no longer See also:

familiar in the same sense as formerly, greater definiteness of expression became necessary in the written style. In See also:order to avoid the uncertainty arising from the lack of vowels to distinguish forms consisting of the same consonants (for the vowel-points were not yet invented), the aramaising use of the reflexive conjugations (Hithpa'el, Nithpa`el) for the See also:internal passives (Pu'al, Hoph'al) became See also:common; particles were used to See also:express the genitive and other relations, and in See also:general there was an endeavour to avoid the obscurities of a purely consonantal See also:writing. What is practically Mishnic Hebrew continued to be used in See also:Midrash for some centuries. The language of both Talmuds, which, roughly speaking, were growing contemporaneously with Midrash, is a mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic (Eastern See also:Aram. in the Babylonian, Western in the See also:Jerusalem See also:Talmud), as was also that of the earlier commentators. As the popular use of Aramaic was gradually restricted by the spread of Arabic as the See also:vernacular (from the 7th century onwards), while the See also:dispersion of the Jews became wider, biblical Hebrew again came to be the natural See also:standard both of See also:East and See also:West. The cultivation of it is shown and was no doubt promoted by the many philological See also:works (grammars, lexicons and masorah) which are extant from the loth century onward. In See also:Spain, under Moorish dominion, most of the important works of that period were composed in Arabic, and the influence of Arabic writers both on language and method may be seen in contemporaneous Hebrew compositions. No other vernacular (except, of course, Aramaic) ever had the same influence upon Hebrew, largely because no other bears so See also:close a relation to it. At the present day in the East, and among learned Jews else-where, Hebrew is still cultivated conversationally, and it is widely used for literary purposes. Numerous works on all kinds of subjects are produced in various countries, See also:periodicals flourish, and Hebrew is the vehicle of See also:correspondence between Jews in all parts of the world. Naturally its quality varies with the ability and See also:education of the writer. In the See also:modern See also:pronunciation the See also:principal differences are between the Ashkenazim (See also:German and See also:Polish Jews) and the Sephardim (See also:Spanish and Portuguese Jews), and concern not only the vowels but also certain consonants, and in some cases probably go back to See also:early times.

A regards writing, it is most likely that the See also:

oldest Hebrew records were preserved in some See also:form of See also:cuneiform script. The See also:alphabet (see WRITING) subsequently adopted is seen in its earliest form on the See also:stele of Mesha, and has been retained, with modifications, by the See also:Samaritans. According to Jewish tradition See also:Ezra in- troduced the See also:Assyrian See also:character ('~~vx =n2) a much-debated statement which no doubt means that the Aramaic See also:hand in use in Babylonia was adopted by the Jews about the 5th century B.C. Another form of the same hand, allowing for differences of material, is found in See also:Egyptian Aramaic papyri of the .5th and 4th that 'ibhri means the See also:man " from the other See also:side," i.e. either of the See also:Euphrates or the See also:Jordan. Hence the See also:Septuagint in Gen!. xiv. 13 render Abram ha-'ibhri by o irepbsrgs, the " crosser," and See also:Aquila, following the same tradition, has b irepal:7ns, the man " from beyond." This view of course implies that the See also:term was originally applied to Abram or his descendants by a See also:people living on the west of the Euphrates or of the Jordan. It has been suggested that the See also:root 'abhar is to be taken in the sense of " travelling," and that Abram the wandering Aramaean (Deut. See also:xxvi. 5) was called ha-'ibhri because he travelled about for trading purposes, his language, 'ibhri, being the lingua franca of Eastern See also:trade. The use of the term 43pa'ivri for biblical Hebrew is first found in the See also:Greek See also:prologue to Ecclesiasticus (c. 130 B.C.). In the New Testament it denotes the native language of Palestine (Aramaic and Hebrew being popularly confused) as opposed to Greek. In modern usage the name Hebrew is applied to that See also:branch of the See also:northern See also:part of the Semitic See also:family of See also:languages which was used by the Israelites during most of the See also:time of their See also:national existence in Palestine, and in which nearly all their sacred writings are composed.

As to its characteristics and relation to other languages of the same stock, see SEMITIC LANGUAGES. It also includes the later forms of the same language as used by Jewish writers after the close of the See also:

Canon throughout the See also:middle ages (Rabbinical Hebrew) and to the present day (New Hebrew). Before the rise of See also:comparative See also:philology it was a popular See also:opinion that Hebrew was the See also:original speech of mankind, from which all others were descended. This belief, derived from the Jews (cf. See also:Pal. Targ. Gen. xi. 1), was supported by the etymologies and other data supplied by the early chapters of See also:Genesis. But though Hebrew possesses a very old literature, it is not, as we know it, structurally as early as, e.g. Arabic, or, in other words, it does not come so near to that See also:primitive Semitic speech which may be pre-supposed as the common See also:parent of all the Semitic languages. Owing to the imperfection of the Hebrew alphabet, which, like that of most Semitic languages, has no means of expressing vowel-sounds, it is only partly possible to trace the development of the language. In its earliest form it was no doubt most closely allied to the Canaanite or Phoenician stock, to the language of See also:Moab, as revealed by the stele of Mesha (c.

850 B.C.), and to Edomite. The vocalization of Canaanite, as far as it is known to us, e.g. from glosses in the Tell-el-Amarna tablets (15th century. B.C.)r and much later from the Punic passages in the Poenulus of See also:

Plautus, differs in many respects from that of the Hebrew of the Old Testament, as also does the Septuagint transcription of proper names. The uniformity, however, of the Old Testament text is due to the labours of successive schools of grammarians who elaborated the Massorah (see HEBREW LITERATURE), thereby obliterating See also:local or See also:dialectic differences, which undoubtedly existed, and establishing the pronunciation current in the synagogues about the 7th century A.D. The only mention of such differences in the Old Testament is in See also:judges xii. 6, where it is stated that the Ephraimites pronounced (sh) as iu or o (s). In Neh. xiii. 24, the "speech of Ashdod " is more probably a distinct (See also:Philistine) language. Certain peculiarities in the language of the See also:Pentateuch .( nr, for ran, sr; for ,-ii ), which used to be regarded as archaisms, are to be explained as purely orthographical.2 In a See also:series of writings, however, extending over so See also:long a period as those of the Old Testament, some variation or development in language is to be expected apart from the natural differences between the poetic (or prophetic) and See also:prose styles. The consonantal text sometimes betrays these in spite of the Massorah. In general, the later books of the Old Testament show, roughly speaking, a greater simplicity and uniformity of style, as well as a tendency to Aramaisms. For some centuries after the See also:Exile, the people of Palestine must have been bilingual, speaking Aramaic for ordinary purposes, but still at least understanding Hebrew.

Not that they forgot their own tongue in the Captivity and learnt Aramaic in See also:

Babylon, as used to be supposed. In the western 1 See Zimmern, in Ztsch. See also:fur Assyriol. (1891), p. 154. 2 Sec Gcsenius-Kautzsch, flebr. See also:Gram. § 17 C. centuries B.C. From this were See also:developed (a) the square character used in See also:MSS. of the See also:Bible or important texts, and in most printed books, (b) the Rabbinic(or See also:Rashi) character, used in commentaries and See also:treatises of all kinds, both in MS. and in printed books, (c) the Cursive character, used in letters and for informal purposes, not as a See also:rule printed. In the present See also:state of Hebrew See also:palaeography it is not possible to determine accurately the date of a MS., but it is easy to recognize the See also:country in which it was written. The most clearly marked distinctions are between Spanish, See also:French, German, See also:Italian, Maghrebi, Greek, Syrian (including Egyptian), Yemenite, Persian and Qaraite hands. It is in the Rabbinic and Cursive characters that the differences are most noticeable.

The Hebrew alphabet is also used, generally with the addition of some diacritical marks, by Jews to write other languages, chiefly Arabic, Spanish, Persian, Greek, Tatar (by See also:

Qaraites) and in later times German. The philological study of Hebrew among the Jews is described below, under Hebrew Literature, of which it formed an integral part. Among See also:Christian scholars there was no See also:independent school of Hebraists before the revival of learning. In the Greek and Latin See also:Church the few fathers who, like See also:Origen and See also:Jerome, knew something of the language, were wholly dependent on their Jewish teachers, and their See also:chief value for us is as depositaries of Jewish tradition. Similarly in the East, the See also:Syriac version of the Old Testament is largely under the influence of the See also:synagogue, and the homilies of See also:Aphraates are a mine of Rabbinic See also:lore. In the middle ages some knowledge of Hebrew was pre-served in the Church by converted Jews and even by non-Jewish scholars, of whom the most notable were the Dominican controversialist Raymundus See also:Martini (in his Pugio fidei) and the Franciscan Nicolaus of See also:Lyra, on whom See also:Luther See also:drew largely in his See also:interpretation of Scripture. But there was no tradition of Hebrew study apart from the Jews, and in the 15th century when an See also:interest in the subject was awakened, only the most ardent zeal could conquer the obstacles that See also:lay in the way. Orthodox Jews refused to See also:teach those who were not of their faith, and on the other hand many churchmen conscientiously believed in the See also:duty of entirely suppressing Jewish learning. Even books were to be had only with the greatest difficulty, at least See also:north of the See also:Alps. In See also:Italy things were somewhat better. Jews expelled from Spain received favour from the popes. Study was facilitated by the use of the See also:printing-See also:press, and some of the earliest books printed were in Hebrew.

The See also:

father, of Hebrew study among Christians was the humanist Johann See also:Reuchlin (1455-1522), the author of the Rudimenta Hebraica (See also:Pforzheim, 15o6), whose contest with the converted See also:Jew Pfefferkorn and the See also:Cologne obscurantists, established the claim of the new study to recognition by the Church. Interest in the subject spread rapidly. Among Reuchlin's own pupils were See also:Melanchthon, See also:Oecolampadius and Cellarius, while See also:Sebastian See also:Munster in See also:Heidelberg (afterwards See also:professor at See also:Basel), and Buchlein (Fagius) at Isny, Strasburg and See also:Cambridge, were pupils of the liberal Jewish See also:scholar See also:Elias Levita. See also:France drew teachers from Italy. Santes Pagninus of See also:Lucca was at See also:Lyons; and the trilingual See also:college of See also:Francis I. at See also:Paris, with Vaiablus and le See also:Mercier, attracted, among other foreigners, See also:Giustiniani, See also:bishop of Nebbio, the editor of the See also:Genoa psalter of 516. In See also:Rome the converted Jew See also:Felix Pratensis taught under the patronage of See also:Leo X., and did useful See also:work in connexion with the great See also:Bomberg Bibles. In Spain Hebrew learning was promoted by See also:Cardinal Ximenes, the See also:patron of the Cornplutensian Polyglot, The printers, as J. See also:Froben at Basel and See also:Etienne at Paris, also produced Hebrew books. For a time Christian scholars still leaned mainly on the Rabbis. But a more independent spirit soon arose, of which le Mercier in the 16th, and See also:Drusius early in the 17th century, may be taken as representatives. In the 17th century too the cognate languages were studied by J. See also:Selden, E.

See also:

Castell (Heptaglott See also:lexicon) and E. See also:Pococke (Arabic) in See also:England, Ludovicus de Dieu in See also:Holland; S. See also:Bochart in France, J. See also:Ludolf (Ethiopic) and J. H. See also:Hottinger (Syriac) in See also:Germany, with See also:advantage to the Hebrew See also:grammar and lexicon. Rabbinic learning moreover was cultivated at Basel by the See also:elder See also:Buxtorf who was the author of grammatical works and a lexicon. With the rise of See also:criticism Hebrew philology soon became a necessary See also:department of See also:theology. Cappellus (d. 1658) followed Levita in maintaining, against Buxtorf, the See also:late introduction of the vowel-points, a controversy in which the authority of the massoretic text was concerned. He was supported by J. See also:Morin and R.

See also:

Simon in France. In the 18th century in Holland A. See also:Schultens and N. W. Schroeder used the comparative method, with great success, relying mainly on Arabic. In Germany there was the meritorious J. D. See also:Michaelis and in France the brilliant S. de Sacy. In the 19th century the greatest name among Hebraists is that of Gesenius, at See also:Halle, whose shorter grammar (of Biblical Hebrew) first. published in 1813, is still the standard work, thanks to the ability with which his See also:pupil E. RSdiger and recently E. Kautzsch have revised and enlarged it. Important work was also done by G.

H. A. See also:

Ewald, J. See also:Olshausen and P. A. de See also:Lagarde, not to mention later scholars who have utilized the valuable results of Assyriological See also:research. Grammars, See also:Introductory.—See also:Davidson, IntroductoryHebrewGramma r (9th ed., See also:Edinburgh, 1888) ; and Syntax (Edinburgh, 1894). Advanced: Gesenitis's Hebraische Grammatik, ed. Kautzsch (28th ed., See also:Leipzig, 1909; Eng. trans., See also:Oxford, 191o); also See also:Driver, See also:Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew (3rd ed., Oxford, 1892). For See also:post-biblical Hebrew, Strack and Siegfried, Lehrbuch d. neulzebriiischen Sprache (Leipzig, 1884). Comparative Grammar.—See also:Wright, Lectures on the Comp. Grammar of the Seta. See also:Lang.

(Cambridge, 189o) ; Brockelmann, Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik (See also:

Berlin, 1907, &c.). Lexicons.—Gesenius's See also:Thesaurus philologicus(Leipzig, 1829-1858), and his Hebraisches Handwbrterbuch (15th ed. by Zimmern and Buhl, Leipzig, 191o) ; See also:Brown, See also:Briggs and Driver, Hebrew and Eng. Lexicon (Oxford, 1892-1906). For later Hebrew: See also:Levy, Neuhebraisches Worterbuch (Leipzig, 1876-1889) ; Jastrow, See also:Dictionary of the Targumi, &c. (NewYork, 1886, &c.) ; Dalman, Aramaisches neuhebraisches Worterbuch (See also:Frankfort a. M., 1897); Kohut, Aruch completum (See also:Vienna, 1878-189o) (in Hebrew) is valuable for the language of the Talmud. (A.

End of Article: HEBREW

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