|
See also:BERLIN, See also:CONGRESS AND TREATY OF . The events that led up to the assembling of the congress of Berlin, the outcome of which was the treaty of the 13th of See also:July 1878, are described else-where (see See also:EUROPE: See also:History; See also:TURKEY: History; Russo-See also:TURKISH See also:WAR). Here it must suffice to say that the terms of the treaty of See also:San Stefano (3rd See also:March 1878) ,by which the Russo-Turkish War had been brought to a conclusion, seemed to those of the other See also:powers who were most interested scarcely less fatal to the See also:Ottoman dominion than that See also:Russian occupation of See also:Constantinople which See also:Great See also:Britain had risked a war to prevent. By this See also:instrument See also:Bulgaria was to become a practically See also:independent See also:state, under the nominal See also:suzerainty of the See also:sultan, bounded by the See also:Danube, the See also:Black See also:Sea, the See also:Aegean and See also:Albania, and cutting off the latter from the remnant of See also:Rumelia which, with Constantinople, ,vas to be See also:left to the See also:Turks. At the same See also:- TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
- TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
- TIME, STANDARD
time the other See also:Christian principalities, See also:Servia and See also:Montenegro, were largely increased in See also:size and their See also:independence definitively recognized; and the proposals of the powers with regard to Bosnia and Herzegovina, communicated to the Ottoman plenipotentiaries at the first sitting of the See also:conference of Constantinople (23rd See also:December 1876), were to be immediately executed. These provisions seemed to make See also:Russia permanently arbiter of the See also:fate of the See also:Balkan See also:peninsula, the more so since the vast war See also:indemnity of 1,400,000,000 roubles exacted in the treaty promised to cripplethe resources of the Ottoman See also:government for years to come.
The two powers whose interests were most immediately threatened by the terms of the See also:peace were See also:Austria and Great Britain. The former especially, refusing to be bribed by the Russian offer of Bosnia and Herzegovina, saw herself cut off from all See also:chance of expansion in the Balkan peninsula and threatened with the See also:establishment there of the See also:paramount See also:power of Russia, a peril it had been her traditional policy to avert. On the 5th of See also:February, accordingly, See also:Count See also:Andrassy issued a circular See also:note, addressed to the signatory powers of the treaty of See also:Paris of 1856 and the See also:London See also:protocol of 1871, suggesting a congress for the purpose of establishing " the agreement of Europe on the modifications which it may become necessary to introduce into the above-mentioned See also:treaties " in view of the preliminaries of peace signed by Russia and Turkey. This See also:appeal to the sanctity of See also:international engagements, traditional in the See also:diplomatic armoury of Austria, and strengthened by so See also:recent a precedent as that of 1871, met with an immediate response. On the 1st of See also:April See also:Lord See also:Salisbury had already addressed a circular note to the See also:British embassies refusing on behalf of the British government to recognize any arrangements made in the peace preliminaries, calculated to modify See also:European treaties, " unless they were made the subject of a formal agreement among the parties to the treaty of Paris," and quoting the " essential principle of the See also:law of nations " promulgated in the London protocol. By Great Britain therefore the See also:Austrian proposal was at once accepted. See also:Germany was very willing to fall in with the views of her Austrian ally and See also:share in a See also:council in which, having no immediate interests of her own, See also:Bismarck could win new laurels in his role of " honest See also:broker." In these circumstances Russia could not but accept the principle of a congress. She tried, however, to limit the See also:- SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)
scope of its powers by suggesting the exclusion of certain clauses of the treaty from its reference, and pointed out (circular of See also:Prince See also:Gorchakov, April 9th) that Russia had not been the first nor the only Power to violate the treaties in question. The See also:answer of Lord Beacons-See also:- FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
- FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
- FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
- FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
- FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
- FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
- FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
- FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
- FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
- FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
- FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)
field was to mobilize the See also:militia and bring See also:Indian troops to the Mediterranean; and finally Russia, finding that the diplomatic support which she had expected from Bismarck failed her, consented to submit the whole treaty without reserve to the congress.
On the 3rd of See also:June Count See also:Munster, in the name of the See also:German government, issued the formal invitation to the congress. The congress met, under the See also:presidency of Prince Bismarck, at Berlin on the 13th of June. Great Britain was represented by Lord See also:Beaconsfield, Lord Salisbury and Lord See also:Odo See also:- RUSSELL (FAMILY)
- RUSSELL, ISRAEL COOK (1852- )
- RUSSELL, JOHN (1745-1806)
- RUSSELL, JOHN (d. 1494)
- RUSSELL, JOHN RUSSELL, 1ST EARL (1792-1878)
- RUSSELL, JOHN SCOTT (1808–1882)
- RUSSELL, LORD WILLIAM (1639–1683)
- RUSSELL, SIR WILLIAM HOWARD
- RUSSELL, THOMAS (1762-1788)
- RUSSELL, WILLIAM CLARK (1844– )
Russell, See also:ambassador at Berlin; Germany by Prince Bismarck, See also:Baron See also:Ernst von Billow and Prince Chlodwig von See also:Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst, ambassador at Paris; Austria by Count Andrassy, Count See also:- LOUIS
- LOUIS (804–876)
- LOUIS (893–911)
- LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
- LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian
Louis See also:Karolyi and Baron Heinrich Karl von Haymerle, ambassador at See also:Rome; See also:France by See also:- WILLIAM
- WILLIAM (1143-1214)
- WILLIAM (1227-1256)
- WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
- WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
- WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
- WILLIAM, 13TH
William H. See also:Waddington, the See also:Comte de See also:Saint-Vallier, ambassador at Berlin, and See also:Felix Hippolyte Desprez, director of See also:political affairs in the See also:department for See also:foreign affairs; Russia by the See also:chancellor, Prince Gorchakov, Count See also:- PETER
- PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
- PETER (PEDRO)
- PETER, EPISTLES OF
- PETER, ST
Peter See also:Shuvalov, ambassador to the See also:court of St See also:- JAMES
- JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
- JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
- JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
- JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
- JAMES, EPISTLE OF
- JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
- JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
- JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
- JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
- JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
- JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)
James's, and See also:Paul d'Oubril, ambassador at Berlin; Turkey by See also:Alexander Catheodory See also:Pasha, See also:minister of public See also:works, All Pasha, mushi, of the Ottoman armies, and Sadullah See also:Bey, ambassador at Berlin. The bases of the conferences had, of course, been settled before-See also:hand, and the final See also:act of the congress was signed by the plenipotentiaries mentioned above exactly a See also:month after the opening of the congress, on the 13th of July.
The treaty of Berlin consists in all of sixty-four articles, of which it will be sufficient to note those which have had a See also:special bearing on subsequent international developments. So far as they affect the territorial boundaries fixed by the treaties of Paris and San Stefano it will be sufficient to refer to the See also:sketch See also:map in the See also:article EUROPE: History. By See also:Art. I. Bulgaria was " constituted an autonomous and tributary principality under the suzerainty of H.I.M. the Sultan "; it was to have " a Christian government and a See also:national militia," Art. II. fixed
the boundaries of the new state and provided for their delimitation by a European See also:commission, which was " to take into See also:consideration the See also:necessity for H.I.M. the Sultan to be able to defend the Balkan frontiers of Eastern Rumelia." Arts. III. to XII. provide for the See also:election of a prince for Bulgaria, the machinery for settling the new constitution, the See also:adjustment of the relations of the new Bulgarian government to the Ottoman ernpire and its subjects (including the question of See also:tribute, the amount of which was, according to Art. XII., to be settled by agreement of the signatory powers " at the See also:close of the first See also:year of the working of the new organization "). By Art. X. Bulgaria, so far as it was concerned, was to take the See also:place of the See also:Sublime See also:Porte in the engagements which the latter had contracted, as well towards Austria-See also:Hungary as towards the Rustchuck-See also:Varna Railway See also:Company, for working the railway of European Turkey in respect to the completion and connexion, as well as the working of the See also:railways situated in its territory.
By Art. XIII. a See also:province was formed See also:south of the Balkans which was to take the name of " Eastern Rumelia," and was to remain " under the See also:direct military and political See also:control of H.I.M. the Sultan,under conditions of administrative See also:autonomy." It was to have a Christian See also:governor-See also:general. Arts. XIV. to See also:XXIII. define the frontiers and organization of the new province, questions arising out of the Russian occupation, and the rights of the sultan. Of the latter it is to he noted that the sultan retained the right of fortifying and occupying the Balkan passes (Art.
XV.) and all his rights and obligations over the railways (Art. XXI.).
Art. See also:XXV., which the events of 1908 afterwards brought into special prominence, runs as follows: " The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina shall be occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary. The government of Austria-Hungary, not desiring to undertake the See also:administration of the sanjak of Novi-Bazar, ... the Ottoman administration will continue to exercise its functions there. Nevertheless, in See also:- ORDER
- ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
- ORDER, HOLY
order to assure the See also:maintenance of the new political state of affairs, as well as freedom and See also:security of communications, Austria-Hungary reserves the right of keeping garrisons and having military and commercial roads in the whole of this See also:part of the See also:ancient vilayet of Bosnia."
By Art. See also:XXVI. the independence of Montenegro was definitively recognized, and by Art. XVIII. she received certain accessions of territory, See also:inch-ding a See also:strip of See also:coast on the Adriatic, but under conditions which tended to place her under the tutelage of Austria-Hungary. Thus, by Art. See also:XXIX. she was to have neither See also:ships of war nor a war See also:flag, the See also:port of See also:Antivari and all Montenegrin See also:waters were to be closed to the war-ships of all nations; the fortifications between the See also:lake and the coast were to be razed; the administration of the maritime and sanitary See also:police at Antivari and along the Montenegrin littoral was to be carried on by Austria-Hungary "by means of See also:light coast-guard boats "; Montenegro was to adopt the maritime See also:code in force in See also:Dalmatia, while the Montenegrin See also:merchant flag was to be under Austro-Hungarian consular See also:protection. Finally, Montenegro was to " come to an understanding with Austria-Hungary on the right to construct and keep up across the new Montenegrin territory a road and a railway."
By Art. XXXIV. the independence of Servia was recognized, sl.bject to conditions (as to religious See also:liberty, &c.) set forth in Art. See also:XXXV. Art. See also:XXXVI. defined the new boundaries.
By_Art. XVIII. the independence of See also:Rumania, already See also:pro-
ay 22
claimed by the prince (ML ne g 1877) , was recognized. Subse-
quent articles define the conditions and the boundaries.
Arts. LII. to LVII. See also:deal with the question of the See also:free See also:navigation of the Danube. All fortifications between the mouths and the See also:Iron See also:Gates were to be razed, and no vessels of war, See also:save those of light See also:tonnage in the service of the See also:river police and the customs, were to navigate the river below the Iron Gates (Art. LII.). The Danube commission, on which Rumania was to be represented, was maintained in its functions (Art. LIII.) and See also:provision made for the further prolongation of its powers (Art. LIV.).
Art. LVIII. cedes to Russia the territories of Ardahan, See also:Kars and Batoum, in See also:Asiatic Turkey. By Art. LIX. " H.M. the See also:emperor of Russia declares that it is his intention to constitute Batoum a free port, essentially commercial."
By Art. LXI. " the Sublime Porte undertakes to carry out, without further delay, the improvements and reforms demanded by See also:local requirements in the provinces inhabited by the Armenians, and to See also:guarantee their security against the Circassians and Kurds." It was to keep the powers informed periodically of " the steps taken to this effect."
Art. LXII. made provision for the securing religious liberty in the Ottoman dominions.
Finally, Art. LXIII. declares that " the treaty of Paris of 3oth March 1856, as well as the treaty of London of 13th March 1871, are maintained in all such of their provisions as are not abrogated or modified by the preceding stipulations."
For the full See also:text of the treaty in the See also:English See also:translation see E. Hertslet, Map of Europe by Treaty, vol. iv. p. 2759 (No. 53o) ; for the See also:French See also:original see State Papers, vol. lxihe p. 749. (W. A.
End of Article: BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
Additional information and Comments
There are no comments yet for this article.
Please link directly to this article:
Highlight the code below, right click, and select "copy." Then paste it into your website, email, or other HTML.
Site content, images, and layout Copyright © 2006 - Net Industries, worldwide.
Do not copy, download, transfer, or otherwise replicate the site content in whole or in part.
Links to articles and home page are always encouraged.
|
del.icio.us it!