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TREATIES

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Originally appearing in Volume V27, Page 232 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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TREATIES . A treaty is a See also:

contract between two or more states. The Latin See also:term " tractatus," and its derivatives, though of occasional occurrence in this sense from the 13th See also:century onwards, only began to be commonly so employed, in lieu of the older technical terms " conventio publica," or " foedus," from the end of the 17th century. In the See also:language of See also:modern See also:diplomacy the term " treaty " is restricted to the more important See also:international agreements, especially to those which are the See also:work of a See also:congress; while agreements dealing with subordinate questions are described by the more See also:general term " See also:convention." The See also:present See also:article will disregard this distinction. The making and the observance of treaties is necessarily a very See also:early phenomenon in the See also:history of See also:civilization, and the theory of treaties was one of the first departments of international See also:law to attract See also:attention. Treaties are recorded on the monuments of See also:Egypt and See also:Assyria; they occur in the Old Testament Scriptures; and questions arising under ovvgxai and foedera occupy much space in the See also:Greek and See also:Roman historians.' Treaties have been classified on many principles, of which it will suffice to mention the more important. A " See also:personal treaty," having reference to dynastic interests, is contrasted with a " real treaty," which binds the nation irrespectively 1 For the celebrated treaty of 509 B.C. between See also:Rome and See also:Carthage, see See also:Polybius iii. 22; and, on the subject generally, See also:Barbeyrac's full but very uncritical Histoire See also:des anciens traitez, (1739); See also:Muller-Jochmus, Geschichte des Volkerrechts See also:im Alterthum (1848) ; E. See also:Egger, Etudes historiques sur See also:les traites publics chez les grecs et chez les romains (new ed., 1866).of constitutional changes; treaties creating outstanding obligations are opposed to " transitory conventions," e.g. for cession of territory, recognition of See also:independence, and the like, which operate irrevocably once for flan. all, leaving nothing more to be done by the contracting parties; and treaties in the nature of a definite transaction (Rechtsgeschaf t) are opposed to those which aim at establishing a general See also:rule of conduct (Rechtssatz). With reference to their See also:objects, treaties may perhaps be conveniently classified as (1) See also:political, including treaties of See also:peace, of See also:alliance, of cession, of boundary, for creation of international servitudes, of neutralization, of See also:guarantee, for the submission of a controversy to See also:arbitration; (2) commercial, including consular and See also:fishery conventions, and slave See also:trade and See also:navigation treaties; (3) confederations for See also:special social objects, such as the See also:Zollverein, the Latin monetary See also:union, and the still wider unions with reference to posts, telegraphs, submarine cables and weights and See also:measures; (4) See also:relating to criminal See also:justice, e.g. to See also:extradition and See also:arrest of fugitive See also:seamen; (5) relating to See also:civil justice, e.g. to the See also:protection of trade-See also:mark and See also:copyright, to the See also:execution of See also:foreign judgments, to the reception of See also:evidence, and to actions by and against foreigners; (6) promulgating written rules of international law, upon topics previously governed, if at all, only by unwritten See also:custom, with reference e.g. to the peaceful See also:settlement of inter-See also:national disputes, or to the conduct of warfare.

It must be remarked that it is not always possible to assign a treaty wholly to one or other of the above classes, since many treaties contain in See also:

combination clauses referable to several of them. The See also:analogy between treaty-making and legislation is striking when a congress agrees upon general principles which are after-wards accepted by a large number of states, as, for instance, in the See also:case of the See also:Geneva conventions for improving the treatment of the wounded. Many political treaties containing " transitory conventions," with reference to recognition, boundary or cession, become, as it were, the See also:title-deeds of the nations to which they relate .2 But the closest analogy of a treaty is to a contract in private law. The making of a valid treaty implies several requisites. (I) It must be made between competent parties, i.e. See also:sovereign states. A " See also:concordat," to which the See also:pope, as a spiritual authority, is one of the parties, Requisites. is therefore not a treaty, nor is a convention between a See also:state and an individual, nor a convention between the rulers of two states with reference to their private affairs. Semi-sovereign states, such as See also:San See also:Marino or Egypt, may make conventions upon topics within their limited competence. It was formally alleged that an infidel state could not be a. party to a treaty. The question where the treaty-making See also:power resides in a given state is answered by the municipal law of that state. In See also:Great See also:Britain it resides in the executive (see the See also:parliamentary debates upon the cession of See also:Heligoland in 1890) ; sometimes, however, it is shared for all purposes, as in the See also:United States, or for certain purposes only, as in many countries of the See also:European See also:continent, by the legislature, or by a See also:branch of it. (2)There must be an expression of agreement. This is not (as in private law) rendered voidable by See also:duress; e.g. the cession of a See also:province, though extorted by overwhelming force, is nevertheless unimpeachable.

Duress to the individual negotiator would, however, vitiate the effect of his See also:

signature. (3) From the nature of the case, the agreement of states, other than those the See also:government of which is autocratic, must be signified by means of agents, whose authority is either See also:express, as in the case of plenipotentiaries, or implied, as in the case of e.g. military and See also:naval commanders, for matters, such as truces, See also:capitulations and cartels, which are necessarily confided to their discretion. When an See also:agent acts in excess of his implied authority, he is said to make no treaty, but a See also:mere " sponsion," which, unless adopted by his government, does not bind it, e.g. the affair of the Caudine Forks 2 Cf. See also:Sir See also:Edward Hertslet's very useful collections entitled: The See also:Map of See also:Europe by Treaty (4 vols., 1875-1891), and The Map of See also:Africa by Treaty (2 vols., 1894). (See also:Livy ix. 5) and the convention of Closter Seven in 1757. (4) Unlike a contract in private law, a treaty, even though made in pursuance of a full power, is, according to modern views, of no effect till it is ratified. It may be remarked that ratification, though hitherto not thought to be required for " declarations," such as the See also:Declaration of See also:Paris of 1856, was expressly stipulated for in the case of those signed at the peace conferences of 1899 and 1907. (5) No special See also:form is necessary fora treaty, which in theory may be made without See also:writing. It need not even appear on the See also:face of it to be a contract between the parties, but may take the form of a See also:joint declaration, or of an See also:exchange of notes. Latin was at one See also:time the language usually employed in treaties, and it continued to be so employed to a See also:late date by the See also:emperor and the pope. Treaties to which several European See also:powers of different nationalities are parties are now usually See also:drawn up in See also:French (the use of which became general in the time of See also:Louis XIV.), but the treaties of See also:Aix-la-Chapelle of 1748 and 1784 contain, as does the final See also:act of the congress of See also:Vienna, a protest against the use of this language being considered obligatory.

French is, however, exclusively used in the treaties constituting the great " international unions "; and bilingual treaties are sometimes accompanied by a third version in French, to be decisive in case of alleged variances between the other two. A great European treaty has usually commenced " In the name of the Most See also:

Holy and Indivisible Trinity," or, when the See also:Porte is a party, " In the name of Almighty See also:God." (6) It is sometimes said that a treaty must have a lawful See also:object, but the danger of accepting such a statement is apparent from the use which has been made of it by writers who deny the validity of any cession of national territory, or even go so far as to See also:lay down, with Fiore, that " all should be regarded as void which are in any way opposed to the development of the See also:free activity of a nation, or which hinder the exercise of its natural rights." (7) The making of a treaty is sometimes accompanied by acts intended to secure its better performance. The taking of oaths, the assigning of " conservatores pacis " and the giving of hostages are now obsolete, but See also:revenue is mortgaged, territory is pledged, and treaties of guarantee are entered into for this purpose. A " transitory convention " operates at once, leaving no duties to be subsequently performed, but with reference to conventions Duration. of other kinds questions arise as to the duration of the See also:obligation created by them; in other words, as to the moment at which those obligations come to an end. This may occur by the See also:dissolution of one of the contracting states, by the object-See also:matter of the agreement ceasing to exist, by full performance, by performance becoming impossible, by See also:lapse of the time for which the agreement was made, by contrarius consensus or mutual See also:release, by " denunciation " by one party under a power reserved in the treaty. By a See also:breach on either See also:side the treaty usually becomes, not void, but voidable. A further cause of the termination of treaty obligations is a See also:total See also:change of circumstances, since a clause " See also:rebus sic stantibus" is said to be a tacit See also:condition in every treaty.' Such a contention can only be very cautiously admitted. It has been put forward by See also:Russia in See also:justification of her repudiation of the clauses of the Treaty of Paris neutralizing the See also:Black See also:Sea, and of her engagements as to Batoum contained in the Treaty of See also:Berlin. The See also:London See also:protocol of 1871, with a view to prevent such abuses, See also:lays down, perhaps a little too broadly, " that it is an essential principle of the law of nations that no power can liberate itself from the engagements of a treaty, nor modify the stipulations thereof, unless with the consent of the contracting powers, by means of an amicable arrangement." Treaties are in most cases suspended, if not terminated, by the outbreak of a See also:war between the contracting parties (though the See also:Spanish See also:decree of the 23rd of See also:April 1898 went too far when it asserted that the war with the United States had terminated " all conventions that have been in force up to the present between the two countries "), and are therefore usually revived in express terms in the treaty of peace. 1 Cf. See also:Bynkershoek, Quest. sur pub. vol. ii. ch. 1o.

The rules for the See also:

interpretation of treaties are not so different from those applicable to contracts in private law as to need here a See also:separate discussion. Collections of treaties are either (i.) general or (ii.) national. i. The first to publish a general collection of treaties was See also:Leibnitz, whose Codex See also:juris gentium, containing documents from 1097 to 1497, " See also:ea quae See also:solo inter liberos populos legum sunt loco " Collections. appeared in 1693, and was followed in 1700 by the Mantissa. The See also:Corps universel diplomatique du See also:droit des gens of J. See also:Dumont, continued by J. Barbeyrac and Rousset in thirteen See also:folio volumes, containing treaties from A.D. 315 to 1730, was published in 1726–1739. Wenck's Corpus juris gentium recentissimi (3 vols. 8vo, 1781-1795) contains treaties from 1735 to 1772. The 8vo Recueil of G. F. de See also:Martens, continued by C. de Martens, See also:Saalfeld, Murhard, K.

F. Samwer, K. Hopf, F. Stoerk and H. Triepel, commenced in 1791 with treaties of 1761, and is still in progress. The See also:

series in 1910 extended to eighty-eight volumes; that for 1910 being the third of the Nouveau recueil general (231°e serie). See also the Recueil international des traites de xxe siecle (1904, sqq.), by Descamps en Renault, and the following periodical publications: Das Staatsarchiv, Sammlung der officiellen Actenstaicke zur Geschichte der Gegenwart (See also:Leipzig, commencing in 1861); Archives diplomatiques (See also:Stuttgart, since 1821); Archives diplomatiques, recueil mensuel de diplomatie et d'histoire (Paris, since 1861); and Hertslet's See also:British and Foreign State Papers, from the Termination of the War of 1814 to the Latest See also:Period, compiled at the Foreign See also:Office by the Libearian and Keeper of the Papers (London, since 1819, and still in progress). ii. The more important collections of national treaties are those of MM. See also:Neumann and de Plasson from 1855, and of the See also:commission for modern history from 1903, for See also:Austria; Beutner for the See also:German See also:Empire, 1883; C. See also:Calvo for "1'Amerique latine, " 1862–1869; de Clereq for See also:France, 1864–1908; De See also:Garcia de la See also:Vega for See also:Belgium, 185o, &c., Lagemans and Breukelman for the See also:Netherlands, 1858, &c. ; See also:Sou&o for See also:Greece, 1858; See also:Count See also:Solar de la See also:Marguerite for See also:Sardinia, 1836–1861; Olivart for See also:Spain, 189o, &c.; Da See also:Castro for See also:Portugal, 1856–1899; See also:Rydberg for See also:Sweden, 1877; Kaiser, 1861, and Eichmann, 1885, for See also:Switzerland; See also:Baron. de Testa, 1864, &c., Aristarchi See also:Bey 1873–1874, and See also:Effendi Noradounghian, 1897–1903, for See also:Turkey; F. de Martens for Russia (the 9 vols. published 1874–1907 contain the treaties made by Russia with Austria, See also:Germany, Great Britain and France respectively) ; W.

F. Mayers for See also:

China, 1877. The See also:official publication for See also:Italy begins in 1864 (see also the collection by See also:Luigi See also:Palma, 1879, &c.), for Spain in 1843, for See also:Denmark in 1874. The treaties of See also:Japan were published by authority in 1899. Those of the United States are contained in the Statutes at Large of the United States, and in the Treaties, Conventions, etc., between the United States of See also:America and Other Powers, 1776–1909 (See also:Washington, 1910); also in the collections of J. See also:Elliott (1834) and H. See also:Minot (1844–1850), see also Mr See also:Bancroft See also:Davis's Notes upon the Treaties of the United States with other Powers, preceded by a See also:list of the Treaties and Conventions with Foreign Powers, chronologically arranged and followed by an See also:Analytical See also:Index and a Synoptical Index of the Treaties (1893). In See also:England no treaties were published before the 17th century, such matters being thought " not See also:fit to be made vulgar. " The treaty of 1604 with Spain was, how-ever, published by authority, as were many of the treaties of the See also:Stuart See also:kings'. See also:Rymer's Foedera was published, under the orders of the government, in twenty volumes, from 1704 to 1732; but for methodical collections of the earlier British treaties we are indebted to private enterprise, which produced three volumes in 1710-1713, republished with a See also:fourth See also:volume in 1732. Other three volumes appeared in 1772-1781, the collection commonly known as that of C. Jenkinson (3 vols.) in 1785 and that of G.

See also:

Chalmers (2 vols.) in 1795. The See also:recent treaties made by Great Britain, previously dispersed through the See also:numbers of the London See also:Gazette or embedded in masses of See also:diplomatic See also:correspondence presented to See also:parliament at irregular intervals, are now officially published as soon as ratified in a special 8vo. " Treaty Series " of parliamentary papers commenced in 1902. J. See also:Macgregor published (1841–1844) eight volumes of commercial treaties, but the great collection of the. commercial treaties of Great Britain is that of L. Hertslet, librarian of the foreign office, continued by his son, Sir Edward Hertslet, and later holders of the same office, entitled A See also:Complete Collection of the Treaties and Conventions and Reciprocal Regulations at present subsisting between Great Britain and Foreign Powers, and of the See also:Laws and Orders in See also:Council concerning the same, so far as they relate to See also:Commerce and Navigation, the Slave Trade, See also:Post Office, &c., and to the Privileges and Interests of the Subjects of the Contracting Parties (24 vols., 1820-1907). Sir Edward Hertslet also commenced in 1875 a series of volumes containing Treaties and Tariffs regulating the Trade between Britain and Foreign Nations, and Extracts of Treaties between Foreign Powers, containing the Most Favoured Nation Clauses applicable to Great Britain. Both of these publications are still continued. He also published, in 1891, Treaties, &c., concluded between Great Britain and See also:Persia, and between Persia and Foreign Powers; and, in 1896, a similar work on treaties with China The treaties affecting British See also:India are officially set out, with See also:historical notes, in A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sannuds relating to India and Neighbouring Countries, by C. V. Aitchison. This work, with the index, extends to eight volumes, which appeared at See also:Calcutta in 1862-1866.

A continuation by A. C. See also:

Talbot was published in 1876, and it was brought up to date by the government of India in 1909. Useful lists of national collections of treaties will be found in the Revue de droit international for 1886, pp. 169-187, and in the See also:Marquis Olivart's See also:Catalogue de ma bibliotheque (1899-1910). It may be See also:worth while to add a list of some of the more important treaties, now wholly or partially in force, some of which are List of discussed under separate headings, especially those important to which Great Britain is a party, classified See also:accord-Treaties. See also:ing to their objects, in the See also:order suggested above. i. The See also:principal treaties affecting the See also:distribution of territory between the various states of Central Europe are those of See also:Westphalia (See also:Osnabruck and See also:Munster), 1648; See also:Utrecht, 1713; Paris and See also:Hubertusburg, 1763; for the See also:partition of See also:Poland, 1772, 1793; Vienna, 1815; London, for the separation of Belgium from the Netherlands, 1831, 1839; See also:Zurich, for the cession of a portion of See also:Lombardy to Sardinia, 1859; Vienna, as to See also:Schleswig-See also:Holstein, 1864; See also:Prague, whereby the German See also:Confederation was dissolved, Austria recognizing the new See also:North German See also:Con-federation, transferring to See also:Prussia her rights over Schleswig-Holstein, and ceding the See also:remainder of Lombardy to Italy, 1866; See also:Frankfort, between France and the new German Empire, 1871. The disintegration of the See also:Ottoman Empire has been regulated by the Great Powers, or some of them, in the treaties of London, 1832, 1863, 1864, and of See also:Constantinople, 1881, with reference to Greece; and by the treaties of Paris, 1856; London, 1871; Berlin, 1878; London, 1883, with reference to See also:Montenegro, See also:Rumania, See also:Servia, See also:Bulgaria and the navigation of the See also:Danube. The encroachments of Russia upon Turkey, previous to the See also:Crimean War, are registered in a series of treaties beginning with that of Kuchuk-Kainarji, 1774, and ending with that of See also:Adrianople in 1829. The independence of the United States of America was acknowledged by Great Britain in the treaty of peace signed at Paris in 1783. The boundary between the United States and the British possessions is regulated in detail by the treaties of Washington of 1842, 1846, 1871, 1903 and 1908.

The territorial results of the war of 1898 between the United States and Spain are registered in the treaty of 1899, and those of the Russo-See also:

Japanese War in the treaty of See also:Portsmouth of 1905. Various causes of possible misunderstanding between Great Britain and France were removed by the convention of 1904; and a similar treaty was concluded with Russia in 1908. The navigation of the See also:Suez See also:Canal is regulated by a treaty of 1888, and that of the future See also:Panama Canal by one of 1901. The boundaries of the territories, protectorates and See also:spheres of See also:influence in Africa of Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium and Portugal have been readjusted by a series of treaties, especially between the years 1885 and 1894. Switzerland, Belgium, See also:Corfu and Paxo and See also:Luxemburg are respectively neutralized by the treaties of Vienna, 1815, and of London, 1839, 1864, 1867. A list of treaties of guarantee supposed to be then in force, to which Great Britain is a party, beginning with a treaty made with Portugal in 1373, was presented to parliament in 1859. Treaties of alliance were made between Great Britain and Japan in 1902 and 1905. ii. For the innumerable conventions, to which Great Britain is a party, as to commerce, consular See also:jurisdiction, See also:fisheries and the slave trade, it must suffice to refer to the exhaustive and skilfully devised index to vols. 1–21 of Hertslet's Commercial Treaties, published in 1905 as vol. 22 of the series. iii.

The social intercourse of the See also:

world is facilitated by conventions, such as those establishing the Latin monetary union, 1865; the international telegraphic union, 1865; the universal postal union, 1874; the international See also:bureau of weights and measures, 1875; providing for the protection of submarine cables in time of peace, 1884; the railway See also:traffic union, 189o. Such treaties, now very numerous, are somewhat misleadingly spoken of by recent writers (L. von See also:Stein and F. de Martens) as constituting a " droit administratif international." iv. For the now operative treaties of extradition to whichGreat Britain is a party, it will be sufficient to refer to the article EXTRADITION. It may be observed that all of them, except the treaty of 1842, now, however, varied by one of .1889, with the United States, are subsequent to, and governed by, the provisions of 33 & 34 Vict. C. 52, The Extradition Act 187o. Before the passing of this general act it had been necessary to pass a special act for giving effect to each treaty of extradition. The most complete collection of treaties of extradition is that of F. J. Kirchner, L'Extradition, Recueil, F&°c. (London, 1883). v.

General conventions, to which most of the European states are parties, were signed in 1883 at Paris for the protection of See also:

industrial, and in 1886 at See also:Bern for the protection of See also:literary and See also:artistic, See also:property, and, from 1899 onwards, a series of general treaties, to none of which is Great Britain a party, have been signed at the See also:Hague, as the result of conferences, invited by the government of the Netherlands, for solving some of the more pressing questions arising out of " the conflict of laws." ' vi. Quasi-legislation by treaty has been directed mainly to encouraging the settlement of international disputes by peaceful methods, and to regulating the conduct of warfare. The first peace See also:conference, held at the Hague in 1899, devoted much time to producing the generally accepted " Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes." An important achievement of this convention was the See also:establishment at the Hague of an international tribunal, always ready to arbitrate upon cases submitted to it; and the convention recommended recourse not only to arbitration, but also to See also:good offices and See also:mediation, and to international commissions of inquiry. This convention has now been superseded by the revised and amplified edition of it adopted by the second peace conference in 1907. The provisions of neither convention are obligatory, but merely " facultative," amounting only to recommendations. Great efforts were made, especially in 1907, but without success, to draft a generally acceptable convention, making resort to arbitration compulsory, at any See also:rate with reference to certain classes of questions. In the meantime, however, agreements of this nature between one power and another have multiplied rapidly within the last few years (see ARBITRATION). Certain bodies of rules intended to mitigate the horrors of war have received the See also:adhesion of most civilized states. Thus the declaration of Paris, 1856 (to which, however, the United States, See also:Venezuela and See also:Bolivia have not yet formally acceded), prohibits the use of privateers and protects the commerce of neutrals; the Geneva conventions, 1864 and 1906, give protection to the wounded and to those in attendance upon them; the St See also:Peters-See also:burg declaration, 1868, prohibits the employment of explosive bullets weighing less than 400 grammes; and the three Hague declarations of 1899 prohibit respectively (1) the launching of projectiles from balloons, (2) the use of projectiles for spreading harmful gases, and (3) the use of expanding bullets. The second ' Hague conference, of 1907, besides revising the convention made by the first conference, of 1899, as to the laws of war on See also:land, produced new conventions, dealing respectively with the opening of hostilities; neutral rights and duties in land warfare; the status of enemy See also:merchant See also:ships at the outbreak of war; the con-version of merchant ships into ships of war; submarine mines; See also:bombardment by naval forces; the application of the Geneva principles to naval warfare; the rights of maritime See also:capture; the establishment of an international See also:prize See also:court; and neutral rights and duties in maritime warfare. These conventions, as well as a republication of the first Hague declaration, which had in 1907 expired by efflux of time, have been already largely ratified. It were greatly to be wished that the official publication of treaties could be rendered more speedy and more methodical than it now is.

The labours of the publicist would also be much lightened were it possible to consolidate the various general collections of diplomatic acts into a new Corps diplomatique universel, well furnished with See also:

cross references, and with brief annotations showing how far each treaty is supposed to be still in force. Literature.—In addition to the See also:works already cited in the course of this article the following are for various reasons important. Joh. See also:Lupus, De confederatione principum (See also:Strassburg, 1511, the first published monograph upon the subject) ; Bodinus, Dissertatio de contractibus summarum potestatum (See also:Halle, 1696) ; Neyron, De vi foederum inter gentes (See also:Gottingen, 1778); Neyron, Essai historique et politique sur les garanties, &c. (Gottingen, 1797) ; Wachter, De modes tollendi pacta inter genies (Stuttgart, 178o) ; Dresch, Ueber See also:die Dauer der Volkervertrage (See also:Landshut, 18o8); C. Bergbohm, Staatsvertrage and Gesetze als Quellen des Volkerrechts (Dorpat, 1877); See also:Jellinek, Die rechtliche Natur der Statenvertrage (Vienna, 1880) ; D. See also:Donati, Trattati internazionali nel diritto costituzionale (1907); Holzendorff, Handbuch des Volkerrechts (1887) vol. iii.; Fleischmann, Volkerrechtsquellen in Auswahl herausgegeben, (1905) ; de Lapradelle, Recueil des arbitrages internationaux (1905); J. B. See also:Moore, History and See also:Digest of the International Arbitrations to which the United States has been a Party (1898) 6 vols. For a list of the principal " concordats," see Calvo, Droit international theorique et pratique t. i. On the history of the great European treaties generally, see the Histoire abregee des traites de paix entre les puissances de l'Europe, by See also:Koch, as recast and continued by See also:Scholl (1817 and 1818), and again by Count de See also:Garden in 1848–1859, as also the Recueil See also:manuel of De Martens and Cussy, continued by See also:Geffcken. For the peace of Westphalia, Putter's Geist des westphalischen Friedens (1795) is useful; for the congress of Vienna Kluber's Acten des Wiener Congresses (1815–1819) and Le Congris de See also:Vienne et les traites de 1815 precede des conferences de Dresde, de Prague et de See also:Chatillon, suivi des Congres d'Aix-la-Chapelle, See also:Troppau, Laybach et Verone, by Count Angeberg.

The last-mentioned writer has also published collections of treaties relating to Poland, 1762–1862; to the See also:

Italian question, 1859; to the Congress of Paris, 1856 and the revision of its work by the Conference of London, 1871; and to the Franco-German War of 187o-71. For the treaties regulating the Eastern question see The European Con- and having been much silted up, so that vessels cannot approach cert in the Eastern Question, by T. E. See also:Holland (1885) and La Turquie within a considerable distance of the See also:shore. From here the et le Tanzimat, by E. See also:Engelhardt (1882–1884). (T. E.

End of Article: TREATIES

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