Online Encyclopedia

coast to 24° 9' II" E. on the Finnish frontier, the extreme length being about 990 m., the extreme breadth (mainland) about 250 m., and the. See also:

TOTAL

total See also:

AREA

area estimated at 173,547 sq. m. Out of a detailed total estimate of the boundary See also:

LINE

line at 610o m., 4737 M. are coastal, the See also:

NORWEGIAN

Norwegian frontier is 1030 m., and the Finnish 333 m. See also:

PHYSICAL

Physical Features.—The backbone of the Scandinavian peninsula is a range, or See also:

SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of masses, of mountains (in See also:

SWEDISH

Swedish Kolen,' the See also:

KEEL

keel) extending through nearly the whole length of the peninsula towards the western See also:

side. The eastern or Swedish, flank has, there-fore, the slighter slope. This range forms, in a measure, a natural boundary between Sweden and Norway from the extreme See also:

north to the north of Svealand, the central of the three See also:

main territorial divisions of Sweden (Norrland, Svealand and Gotaland) ; though this boundary is not so well markd that the See also:

POLITICAL

political frontier may follow it throughout. Sweden itself may be considered in four main physical divisions—the mountains and highland See also:

DISTRICT

district, covering all Norrland and the western part of Svealand; the lowlands of central Sweden; the so-called Smaland See also:

HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands, in the south and south-See also:

east; and the plains of Skane, occupying the extreme southward See also:

PROJECTION

projection of the peninsula. The first district, thus defined, is much the largest, and includes the greatest elevations in the See also:

COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country and the finest scenery. The highest mountains are found in the north, the bold Northern See also:

PEAK, THE

peak of Kebnekaise reaching 7005 ft., Sarjektjacko, Notthands. 6972 ft., being the loftiest point of a magnificent See also:

GROUP

group including the Sarjeksfjall, Alkasfjall and Partefjall, which range from 6500 ft. upwards; and, farther south, See also:

SULITELMA

Sulitelma, 6158 ft., See also:

long considered the highest point in Scandinavia. See also:

ELEVATION

Elevation then decreases slightly, through Stuorevarre (5787 ft.) and Areskutan (4656 ft.), to the south of which the railway from See also:

TRONDHJEM, or THRONDHJEM (sometimes written in the German form Drontheim)

Trondhjem in Norway into Sweden crosses the See also:

FINE

fine pass at Storlien.

South of this again, before the main See also:

CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain passes into Norway, are such heights as Helagsfjall (5896 ft.) and Storsylen (5781 ft.) ; and a group of mountains in the northern part of the See also:

province of See also:

DALECARLIA (Dalarne, " the Dales ")

Dalecarlia (Dalarne) ranges from 3600 to 4500 ft. in height. The See also:

NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

neighbour-See also:

hood of Areskutan and the Dalarne highlands, owing to the railway and the development of communications by steamer on the numerous lakes, are visited by considerable See also:

numbers of travellers, both Swedish and See also:

FOREIGN

foreign, in summer; but the northern heights, crossed only by a few unfrequented tracks, are known to few, and to a considerable extent, indeed, have not been closely explored. From the scenic standpoint the relatively small elevation of these mountains finds See also:

COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation in the See also:

low See also:

SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow-line, which ranges from about 3000 ft. in the north to 5500 ft. in the south of the region. All the higher parts are thus snow-clad ; and glaciers, numerous in the north, occur as far south as the Helagsfjall. The outline of the mountains is generally rounded, the rocks having been subjected to erosion from a very See also:

early See also:

GEOLOGICAL

geological See also:

AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, but hard formations cause bold peaks at several points, as in Kebnekaise and the Sarjeksfjall. I In Swedish the definite See also:

ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article (masc. and fem. en, neut, et) is added as a suffix to the substantive (when there is no epithet). See also:

GEOGRAPHICAL

Geographical terms are similarly suffixed to names, thus Dalelfven, the See also:

RIVER

river Dal. The commonest geographical terms are : e1~, strum, river; sjo, See also:

lake; o, See also:

ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island; holm, small island; See also:

FLAIL (from Lat. flagellum, a whip or scourge, but used in the Vulgate in the sense of " flail "; the word appears in Dutch vegel, Ger. Flegel, and Fr. Pau)

flail, See also:

mountain,group or range; dal, valley; vik, See also:

bay. In Norrland the following terms are See also:

COMMON

common: a, river, often attached to the names of the large See also:

rivers, as Tornea, Luleh (although properly it means a smaller river than See also:

elf); the names of towns at their mouths always following this See also:

FORM (Lat. forma)

form; trdsk (See also:

LOCAL

local, properly meaning See also:

marsh), jaur (Lapp), afva, lake (provincial Swedish, properly a See also:

KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

creek opening from a river). A is pronounced o. From the See also:

SPINAL

spinal mountain range a series of large rivers run in a south-easterly direction to the Gulf of Bothnia. In their upper Rivers of parts they drain See also:

GREAT

great lakes which have resulted from the ,north. the formation of morainic dams, and in some cases perhaps from the incidence of erratic upheaval of the See also:

LAND

land.

All See also:

lie at elevations between 900 and 1300 ft. All are narrow in comparison with their length, which is not infrequently magnified to view when two lakes are connected by a very See also:

SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short stretch of See also:

RUNNING

running See also:

WATER

water with a navigable fall of a few feet, such as those between Hornafvan, Uddjaur and Storafvan on the Skellefte river. The following are the See also:

PRINCIPAL

principal rivers from north to south: The Tome, which with its tributary the Muonio, forms the boundary with Finland, has a length of 227 m., and drains lake Torne (Tornetrask), the area of which is 126 sq. m. The Kalix is 208 m. in length. The Lule is formed of two branches, Stora and Lilla (Great and Little) Lule; the length of the main stream is 193 m. The Stora Lule See also:

BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch drains the Langas and Stora Lule lakes (Langasjaur, Luletrask), which have a length together exceeding 50 m., a fall between them of some 16 ft. and a total area of only 87 sq. m., as they are very narrow. Below Stora Lule lake the river forms the Harsprang (See also:

hare's leap; Njuommelsaska of the Lapps), the largest and one of the finest cataracts in Europe. The sheer fall is about See also:

LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo ft., and there is a further fall of 150 ft. in a series of tremendous rapids extending for It m. Farther up, at the See also:

head of Langasjaur, is the Stora Sjofall (great lake fall; Lapp, Atna Muorki Kartje), a fall of 130 ft. only less See also:

GRAND

grand than the Harsprang. Both are situated in an almost uninhabited country and are rarely visited. Following the Pite river (191 M.), the Skellefte (205 m.) drains Hornafvan and Storafvan, with a fall of 20 ft., and an area together of 275 sq. m. Hornafvan is a straight and sombre trough, flanked by high hills of unbroken slope, but Storafvan and the intervening Uddjaur are broad, throwing off deep irregular inlets, and picturesquely studded with numerous islets.

The Ume (237 m.) receives a tributary, the Vindel, of almost equal length, on the north See also:

BANK

bank some 20 m. from its mouth, and among several lakes drains Stor Uman (64 sq. m.). The further principal rivers of this region are the Angerman (242 m.), Indal (196 m.), draining the large lakes Kallsjo and Storsjo, Ljusnan (230 m.), Dal and Klar. Of these the two last rise in the southernmost part of the mountain region described, but do not as a whole belong to the region under See also:

CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration. The Angerman receives the See also:

WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of a wider See also:

SYSTEM

system of streams and lakes than the rivers north of it, and has thus a drain-age area of 12,591 sq. m., which is exceeded only by that of the Torne (16,690 sq. m.), the See also:

AVERAGE

average of the remaining rivers named being about 7700 sq. m. Beyond the Harsprang and the Stora Sjofall the northern rivers do not generally form great falls, though many of the rapids are grand. The Indal, by changing its course in 1796 near Bispgarden on the northern railway, has See also:

LEFT

left See also:

BARE

bare the remarkable See also:

bed of a fall called Doda (dead) Fall, in which many " See also:

GIANT (O.E. geant, through Fr. giant, O.Fr. gaiant, jaiant, jeant, med. pop. Lat. gagante—cf. Ital. gigante—by assimilation from gigantem, ace. of Lat. gigas, Gr. yiyas)

giant's caldrons " are exposed. In the uplands above the chain of lakes called Stromsvattudal, which are within the drainage area on the Angerman, the Hailing stream forms the magnificent Hallingsa Fall. In the See also:

SOUTHERN

southern mountain valleys of the region there are several beautiful falls, such as the Tannfors, not far from Areskutan, the Storbo, Handol and Rista. Eastward from the main mountain range the highland region is divided into two belts: a See also:

MIDDLE

middle See also:

belt of morainic deposits and marshes, and a coastal belt. The middle belt is gently undulating; viewed from rare eminences the landscape over the boundless forests resembles a dark See also:

green sea, through which the great rivers flow straight between steep, See also:

FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat-topped See also:

banks, with long quiet reaches broken by occasional rapids. The few lakes they form in this belt are rather See also:

mere widenings in their courses; but the tributary streams drain numerous small lakes and See also:

PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. petia, pecia, piece, ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt. pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh peth, portion)

peat-mosses. In the extreme north this belt is almost flat, a few low hills See also:

STANDING

standing isolated and conspicuous; and the rivers have See also:

SERPENTINE

serpentine courses, while steep banks are absent.

The middle belt merges into the coastal belt, covered by geologically See also:

RECENT

recent marine deposits, reaching an extreme height of 700 to Boo ft., and extending Inland some 6o to 8o m. in the north and 40 m. in the south. Small fertile plains are characteristic, and the rivers have cut deep into the soft deposits of See also:

sand and See also:

clay, leaving lofty and picturesque bluffs (nipor). The orographical See also:

DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the central lowlands bears comparison in formation with the coastal belt of marine deposits to Central the north. Here are flat fertile plains of clay, well Lowlands. wooded, with innumerable lakes, including the four great lakes, See also:

VENER [Wener or Miner; often written, with,the addition of the definite- article, Venern]

Vener, See also:

VETTER [Vallee or Wetter, often written, with the addition of the definite article, Vettern]

Vetter, See also:

MILLAR, ANDREW (1707-1768)

Millar and Hjelmar. These, except the last, far exceed in area any of the northern lakes, and even Hjelmar (185 sq. m.) is only exceeded by Hornafvan-Storafvan. The areas of the other three lakes are respectively 2149, 733 and 449 sq. m. Vener, Vetter and Hjelmar are broad and open; Millar is very irregular in form, and of great length. Millar, Vener and Hjelmar contain many islands; in Vetter there are comparatively few. None of the lakes is of very great See also:

DEPTH

depth, the deepest See also:

SOUNDING (for derivation see SOUND above)

sounding occurring in Vetter, 390 ft. In Hjelmar, which See also:

MEASURES

measures 38 m. from east to west, and is 12 m. in extreme width, the greatest depth is only 59 ft., but as its flat shores were formerly subject to inundation its level was sunk 6 ft. by deepening the navigable channel through it and clearing out various waterways (the See also:

ESKILSTUNA

Eskilstuna river, Hjelmar See also:

canal, &c.) in 1878-'887. The scenery of these lakes, though never grand, is always quietly beautiful, especially in the See also:

case of Millar, the wooded shores and islands of which form a notable feature in the pleasant environs of the See also:

CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of Stock-holm. The elevation of the central lowlands seldom exceeds 300 ft., but a few isolated heights of See also:

SILURIAN

Silurian See also:

rock appear, such as Kinnekulle, rising 988 ft. above sea-level on the south-eastern See also:

SHORE

shore of Vener, Billingen (978 ft.) between that lake and Vetter, and Omberg (863 ft.) on the eastern shore of Vetter.

Noteworthy local features in the landscape of the central lowlands are the eskers or See also:

GRAVEL, or PEBBLE BEDS

gravel-ridges ((See also:

ISAR (identical with Isere, in Celtic " the rapid ")

Isar), traversing the land in a direction from N.N.W. to S.S.E., from Too to 200 ft. in height above the surrounding See also:

SURFACE

surface. Typical instances occur in the cities of See also:

STOCKHOLM

Stockholm (Brunkebergsasen) and See also:

UPSALA, or UPPSALA

Upsala (U See also:

SALA, GEORGE AUGUSTUS HENRY (1828-1895)

Sala-asen). South of the central lowlands the so-called Smaland highlands extend over the old province of Smaland in the south-east, and lie roughly south of Lake Vetter and of See also:

GOTHENBURG (Swed. Goteborg)

Gothenburg, Smaad where they reach the south-west coast. The See also:

general Hlghi~laads. elevation of this region exceeds 300 ft., and in the eastern part 600 ft.; the principal heights are Tomtabacken (1237 ft.) and Ekbacken (1175 ft.),about 25 m. respectively south-east and west of the See also:

TOWN

town of See also:

JONKOPING

JonkOping at the southern extremity of Lake Vetter. See also:

GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

Gentle See also:

FOREST

forest-clad undulations, many small lakes and peat-mosses, are characteristic of the region; which, in fact, closely resembles the middle belt of the northern highland region. The Smaland highlands abut southward upon the plains of Skane, the last of the main orographical divisions, which coincides roughly with the old province of Skane (Scania). Level plains, with See also:

rich open meadows and cultivated lands, the monotony of which is in some parts relieved by See also:

BEECH

beech See also:

woods, are separated by slight ridges with 'a general direction from N.W. to S.E., such as Hallandsasen in the north-west, with an extreme elevation of 741 ft. The hydrographical survey may now be completed. The Dal river, which enters the Gulf of Bothnia near See also:

GEFLE

Gefle, is formed of the See also:

union of eastern and western branches Oster Dal, Rivers of Vester Dal) not far from the town of See also:

FALUN

Falun. The eastern the South. branch drains various small lakes on the Norwegian frontier, and in its See also:

LOWER

lower course passes through the beautiful Lake Siljan. The length of the whole river including the eastern as the main branch is 283 m. The Klar river (228 m.) rises as the Faemund river in Faemundsjo, a large lake in Norway See also:

close west of the See also:

SOURCES

sources of the Dal.

The Klar flows south into Lake Vener, which is drained to the Cattegat by the short See also:

GOTA

Gota river, on which, not far below the lake, are the celebrated falls of See also:

TROLLHATTAN

Trollhattan. Lake Vetter drains eastward by the See also:

MOTALA

Motala to the Baltic, Lake Millar drains in the same direction by a short channel at Stockholm, the normal fall of which is so slight that the stream is sometimes reversed. The Smaland highlands are drained to the Baltic and Cattegat by numerous rivers of less importance. Excepting Finland no country is so full of lakes as Sweden. About 14,000 sq. m., nearly one-twelfth of the total area, are under water. The coast of Sweden is not indented with so many or so deep fjords as that of Norway, nor do the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic and the Cattegat See also:

SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in the See also:

PECULIAR

peculiar grandeur of the North Sea coast. All, however, have Coast. a common feature in the fringe of islands which, throughout nearly the entire length, shelters the coast of the mainland from the open sea. This " skerry-fence " (in Swedish, skargard) is only interrupted for any considerable distance (in the case of Sweden) See also:

ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the southern shore off the flat coast of Skane, between the towns of Varberg on the west and Ahus on the east. Between it and the mainland lies a connected series of navigable sounds of the greatest See also:

ADVANTAGE

advantage to coastwise See also:

TRAFFIC

traffic, and also of no little importance as a natural See also:

defence. The skargard of the Cattegat, north of Varberg, is bald and rugged.' The two largest islands are Orust and Tjorn, north of Gothenburg. Off the south-east coast the See also:

PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of the skargard is in a measure taken by the long narrow island of See also:

OLAND

Oland, but north of this the skargard begins to widen, and the most considerable fjords are found, such as Bravik, which penetrates the land for 35 m. nearly up to the town of See also:

NORRKOPING

Norrkoping. The island belt is widest (some 45 m.) off the city of Stockholm, the approach to which from the sea is famous for its beauty.

Farther north, a narrow See also:

sound (Glands Haf) intervening on the Swedish side, the vast Aland See also:

ARCHIPELAGO

archipelago, belonging to See also:

Russia, extends across to the Finnish coast. The skargard of the Gulf of Bothnia is less fully See also:

DEVELOPED

developed than that of either the Baltic or the Cattegat. The islands of the skargard as a whole are rugged and picturesque, though never lofty like many of those off the Norwegian coast. In the Baltic many are well wooded, but the See also:

MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority are bare or See also:

heath-clad, as arc those of the Gulf of ,Bothnia. Of the large islands in the Baltic and Cattegat, besides Oland, only See also:

GOTLAND

Gotland is Swedish. See also:

GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—The fundamental rocks of Sweden belong to the Azoic or pre-See also:

CAMBRIAN

Cambrian formation, and consist of crystalline rocks. Three divisions are distinguished by some authors—the See also:

grey See also:

GNEISS

gneiss, the red See also:

IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron gneiss and the See also:

GRANULITE (Lat. granulum, a little grain)

granulite. The grey gneiss predominates in the northern and eastern parts of the country, from Vesternorrland down to the province of See also:

KALMAR (CALMAR)

Kalmar. The rock has a prevalent grey See also:

COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour, and contains as characteristic minerals See also:

garnet and in some parts See also:

GRAPHITE

graphite. The red iron gneiss prevails in western Sweden in the provinces of Vermland, Skaraborg, Elfsborg, and down to the province of See also:

KRISTIANSTAD (CHRISTIANSTAD)

Kristianstad. The formation is very See also:

UNIFORM

uniform in its See also:

CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, the gneiss having a red colour and containing small granules of See also:

MAGNETITE

magnetite, but, nevertheless, not a single iron mine belongs to this region. The red gneiss contains in many places beds or masses of hyperite.

The granulite, also called eurite and See also:

HALLEFLINTA (a Swedish word meaning rock-flint)

halleflinta, is the most important of the Pre-Cambrian formation, as it contains all the metalliferous deposits of Sweden. It prevails in the middle part of the country, in Kopparberg,,.Vestmanland, Upsala and parts of Vermland. It occurs also in Ostergotland, Kalmar and Kronoberg. The rock is a very compact and fine-grained mixture of See also:

FELSPAR, or FELDSPAR

felspar, See also:

QUARTZ

quartz and See also:

MICA

mica, often graduating to mica schist, See also:

QUARTZITE

quartzite and gneiss. With these are often associated limestones, See also:

DOLOMITES, THE

dolomites and See also:

MARBLES

marbles containing serpentine (Kolmarden). The metalliferous deposits have generally the form of beds or layers between the strata of granulite and See also:

LIMESTONE

limestone. They are often highly contorted and dislocated. The iron deposits occur in more or less fine-grained gneiss or. granulite (See also:

GELLIVARA [GELLIVARE]

Gellivara, Grangesberg, Norberg, Striberg), or separated from the granulite by masses of augitic and amphibolous minerals (gronskarn), as in Persberg and Nordmark. Sometimes they are surrounded by halleflinta and limestone, as at Dannemora, Langban, Pajsberg, and then carry manganiferous minerals. Argentiferous See also:

GALENA

galena occurs at Sala in limestone, surrounded by granulite, and at Guldsmedshytta (province of See also:

OREBRO

Orebro) in dark halleflinta. See also:

COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

Copper See also:

PYRITES

pyrites occur at Falun in mica-See also:

SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists, surrounded by halleflinta. See also:

ZINC

Zinc-See also:

BLENDE, or SPHALERITE

blende occurs in large masses at Ammeberg, near the northern end of Lake Vetter.

The See also:

COBALT (symbol Co, atomic weight 59)

cobalt ore consists of cobalt-glance (Tunaberg in the province of Sodermanland) and of linneite (at Gladhammar, near Vestervik). The See also:

nickel ore of Sweden is magnetic pyrites, containing only a very small percentage of nickel, and generally occurs in See also:

DIORITE (from the Gr. S&oi4eiv to distinguish, from hA through, Epos, a boundary)

diorite and greenstones. Besides the crystalline gneiss and halleflinta there are also sedimentary deposits which are believed to be of pre-Cambrian age. The most important of these are the Dala See also:

SANDSTONE

Sandstone (chiefly developed in Dalarne), the Almasakra and Visingso series (around Lake Vetter) and the Dalsland formation (near Lake Vener). Large masses of See also:

GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite are found in many parts of Sweden, in Kronoberg, Orebro, Goteborg, Stockholm, &c. Sometimes the granite graduates into gneiss; sometimes (as north of Stockholm) it encloses large angular pieces of gneiss. Intrusions of hyperite, See also:

GABBRO

gabbro (See also:

ANORTHITE

anorthite-gabbro at Radmanso in the province of Stock-holm) and diorite are also abundant. The Cambrian formation generally occurs along with the Ordovician, and consists of many divisions. The See also:

OLDEST

oldest is a sandstone, in which are found traces of See also:

WORMS

worms, impressions of Medusae, and shells of Mickwitzia. The upper divisions consist of ':bituminous limestones, clay-slates, See also:

ALUM

alum-See also:

SLATE (properly CLAY SLATE; in M. Eng. slat or sclat, from O. Fr. esclat, a small piece of wood used as a tile; esclater, to break into pieces, whence modern Fr. eclat, the root being seen also in Ger. schleissen, to split)

slate, and contain numerous See also:

SPECIES

species of See also:

TRILOBITES

trilobites of the genera Paradoxides, Conocoryphe, Agnostus, Sphaerophthalmus, Peltura, &c. The Ordovician formation occurs in two distinct facies—the one shaley and containing See also:

GRAPTOLITES

graptolites; the other calcareous, with brachiopods, trilobites, &c. The most See also:

CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant of the calcareous divisions is the Orthoceras limestone, a red or grey limestone with Megalaspis and Orthoceras.

The sub-divisions of the system may be grouped as follows: (I) Ceratopyge Limestone; (2) Lower Graptolite Shales and Orthoceras Limestone; (3) Middle Graptolite Shales, Chasmops and other Limestones, Trinucleus beds. The Cambrian and Ordovician strata occur in isolated patches in Vesterbotten, Jemtland (around Storsjo), Skaraborg, Elfsborg, Orebro, Ostergotland and Kristianstad. The whole of the island of Oland consists of these strata. The deposits are in most places very little disturbed and form See also:

HORIZONTAL

horizontal or slightly inclined layers. South of Lake Vener they are capped by thick beds of eruptive See also:

DIABASE

diabase (called trapp). North of Lake Siljan (province of Kopparberg), however, they have been very much dislocated. The Silurian has in Sweden almost the same character as the See also:

WENLOCK

Wenlock and See also:

Ludlow formation of See also:

England and consists partly of graptolite shales, partly of limestones and sandstones. The island of Gotland consists entirely of this formation, which occurs also in some parts of the province of Kristianstad. In the western and northern alpine part of Sweden, near the boundaries of Norway, the Silurian strata are covered by crystalline rocks, mica schists, quartzites, &c., of an enormous thickness, which have been brought into their See also:

PRESENT

present positions upon a thrust-See also:

PLANE

plane. These rocks form the See also:

mass of the high mountain of Areskutan, &c. The Triassic formation (See also:

RHAETIC (Fr. Rhetien or Rhcetien; Ger. Rhdt or Rhktisch; It. Retico)

Rhaetic division) occurs in the northern part of Malmohus. It consists partly of sandstones with impressions of See also:

PLANTS

plants (cycads, ferns, &c.), and partly of clay-beds with See also:

COAL

coal.

The Cretaceous formation occurs in the provinces of Malmohus and Kristianstad and a few small patches are found in the province of Blekinge. Only the higher divisions (Senonian and Danian) of the system are represented. The deposits are marls, sandstones and limestones, and were evidently formed near the shore-line. The most recent deposits of Sweden date from the Glacial and See also:

POST

Post-Glacial periods. At the beginning of the Glacial See also:

period the height of Scandinavia above the level of the sea was greater than at present, Sweden being then connected with See also:

Denmark and See also:

Germany and also across the middle of the Baltic with Russia. On the west the North Sea and Cattegat were also dry land. On the elevated pans of this large See also:

CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent glaciers were formed, which, proceedingdownwards to the lower levels, gave origin to large streams and rivers, the abundant deposits of which formed the diluvial sand and the diluvial clay. In most parts of Sweden these deposits were swept away when the See also:

ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice advanced, but in Skane they often form still, as in northern Germany, very thick beds. At its maximum the inland ice not only covered Scandinavia but also passed over the present boundaries of Russia and Germany. When the See also:

CLIMATE

climate became less severe the ice slowly receded, leaving its moraines, called in Sweden krosstenslera and krosstensgrus. Swedish geologists distinguish between bottengrus (bottom gravel, bottom See also:

MORAINE

moraine) and See also:

ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary krossgrus (terminal and side moraine). The former generally consists of a hard and compact mass of rounded, scratched and sometimes polished stones firmly embedded in a See also:

POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder of crushed rock.

The latter is less compact and contains angular boulders, often of a considerable See also:

SIZE

size, but no powder. Of later origin than the krosstensgrus is the rullstensgrus (gravel of rolled stones), which often forms narrow ranges of hills, many See also:

MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles in length, called dsar. During the disappearance of the great inland ice large masses of mud and sand were carried by the rivers and deposited in the sea. These deposits, known as glacial sand and glacial clay, See also:

COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover most parts of Sweden south of the provinces of Kopparberg and Vermland, the more elevated portions of the provinces of Elfsborg and Kronoberg excepted. In the glacial clay shells of Yoldia arctica have been met with in many places (e.g. near Stockholm). At this See also:

EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch the North Sea and the Baltic were connected along the line of Vener, Vetter, Hjelmar and See also:

MALAR

Malar. On the other side the See also:

White Sea was connected by Lakes See also:

ONEGA

Onega and See also:

LADOGA (formerly NEvo)

Ladoga with the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic. In the depths of the Baltic and of Lakes Vener and Vetter there actually exist animals which belong to the See also:

ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

arctic See also:

FAUNA

fauna and are remnants of the See also:

ancient ice-sea. The glacial clay consists generally of alternate darker and lighter coloured layers, which give it a striped See also:

APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance, for which See also:

REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason it has often been called hvarfvig lera (striped clay). The glacial clay of the Silurian regions is generally rich in See also:

lime and is thus a See also:

MARL (from O. Fr. marle, Late Lat. margila, dim. of marga; cf. Du. and Ger. Mergel)

marl of great fertility. The deposits of glacial sand and clay are found in the southern part of Sweden at a height ranging from 70 to 150 ft. above the level of the sea, but in the interior of the country at a height of 400 ft. above the sea. On the coasts of the ancient ice-sea, in which the glacial clay was deposited, there were heaped-up masses of shells which belong to species still extant around Spitzbergen and See also:

GREENLAND (Danish, &c., Gronland)

Greenland.

Most renowned among these See also:

shell-deposits are the Kap'ellbackarne near Uddevalla. With the melting of the great ice-See also:

SHEET

sheet the climate became milder, and the southern part of Sweden was covered with shrubs and plants now found only in the northern and alpine parts of the country (Salix polaris, Dryas octopetala, Betula nand, &c.). The sea fauna also gradually changed, the arctic species migrating northward and being succeeded by the species existing on the coasts of Sweden. The Post-Glacial period now began. Sands (mosand) and See also:

CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900)

clays (dkerlera and fucuslera) continued to be deposited on the lower parts of the country. They are generally of insignificant thickness. In the shallow lakes and enclosed bays of the sea there began to be formed and still is in course of formation a See also:

DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit known by the name gyttja, characterized by the diatomaceous shells it contains. Sometimes the gyttja consists mainly of diatoms, and is then called bergmjol. The gyttja of the lakes is generally covered over by peat of a later date. In many of the lakes of Sweden there is still in progress the formation of an iron ore, called sjomalm, ferric hydroxide, deposited in forms resembling peas, coins, &c., and used for the manufacture of iron. (P. LA.) Climate.—The climate of the Scandinavian peninsula as a whole is so far tempered by the warm See also:

ATLANTIC

Atlantic See also:

DRIFT (from "drive ")

drift from the south-west as to be unique in comparison with other countries of so high a See also:

LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude.

The mountains of the Keel are not so high as wholly to destroy this effect over Sweden, and the maritime See also:

INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the Baltic system has also to be considered. Sweden thus occupies a See also:

CLIMATIC

climatic position between the purely coastal conditions of Norway and the purely See also:

CONTINENTAL

continental conditions of Russia; and in some years the climate inclines to the one character, in others to the other. As a result of the wide latitudinal extent of the country there are also marked local See also:

variations to be contrasted. About one-seventh of the whole country is north of the Arctic Circle. The mean See also:

ANNUAL

annual temperature ranges from 26.6° F. at Karesuando on the northern frontier to 44.8° at Gothenburg and 44.6° at See also:

Lund in the south (or 29.5° to 45° reduced to sea-level). Between these extremes the following actual average temperatures have been observed at certain stations from north' to south which are appropriately grouped for the purpose of comparison (heights above sea-level following each name) : Jockmock (85o ft.), at the See also:

FOOT

foot of the lake-chain,on the Little Lule River—29.7°; and See also:

HAPARANDA (Finnish Haaparanta, " Aspen Shore ")

Haparanda (30 ft.), at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia—32.4°. Stensele (1076 ft.), at the foot of the lake-chain on the Ume—31;8° ; and See also:

LIMA

Lima. (39 ft.) at its mouth on the Gulf of Bothnia—34.9°. See also:

OSTERSUND

Ostersund (1o56 ft.) on Storsj6—35.2°; and See also:

HERNOSAND

Hernosand (49 ft.) on the Gulf of Bothnia—37.8°. See also:

KARLSTAD [CARLSTAD]

Karlstad (18o ft.) at the head of Lake Vener—42.3°; Orebro (102 ft.) at the west of Lake Hjelmar—41.4°; and Stockholm (144 ft.) -42 1 °. Gothenburg (26 ft.) on the Cattegat—44.8°; Jonkoping (312 ft.) at the south of lake Vetter—42.4°; and Vestervik (43 ft.) on the Baltic—43.2 ° But the local variations thus indicated are brought out more fully by a consideration of seasonal, and especially See also:

winter, temperatures. In Sweden See also:

JULY

July is generally the hottest See also:

month, the average temperature ranging from about 51° to 62°.

In See also:

JANUARY

January, however, it ranges from 4° to 32° (See also:

FEBRUARY

February is generally a little colder). Moreover, there are two well-marked centres of very low winter temperature in the inland parts. The one is in the mountainous region of the south of Jemtland and the north of Dalarne, extending into Norway and thus lying in the middle of the peninsula about 62°N. Here the average temperature in January is 8.5', whereas at Ostersund it is over 15°. The other and more strongly marked centre is in the far north, extending into Norway and Finland, where the average is 3.8°. The effect of the spinal mountain range in modifying oceanic conditions is thus illustrated. The same effect is well shown by the linguiform isotherms. In January, for example, the See also:

ISOTHERM (Gr. ivos, equal, and %pan, heat)

isotherm of 14°, after skirting the north coast of the Scandinavian peninsula, turns southward along the Keel, See also:

CROSSING

crossing the upper part of the district of the great northern lakes. It continues in this direction as far as the northern end of Lake Mjosen in Norway (61° N.), then turns sharply north-north-eastward, runs west of Lake Siljan and bends north-east to strike the Bothnian coast near Skelleftea. In July, on the other See also:

hand, the isotherms show an almost constant temperature all over the country, and the linguiform curves are wanting. The relative length of the seasons shows contrasts similar to those of temperature. In the north See also:

SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring begins in May, summer in the middle of See also:

JUNE

June and autumn in the middle of See also:

AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August.

In the south and south-west spring begins in See also:

March, summer in the middle of May and autumn in See also:

OCTOBER

October. At Karesuando the last See also:

frost of spring occurs on an average on the 15th of June, and the first of autumn on the 27th of August, though See also:

NIGHT

night frosts may occur earlier; while at Stockholm 42 months are See also:

FREE

free of frost. Ice forms about October in the north, in See also:

NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November or See also:

DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December in the midlands and south, and breaks up in May or June and in See also:

APRIL

April respectively. Ice covers the lakes for 10o to 115 days annually in the south, 15o in the midlands and 200 to 220 in the north. A local increase of the ice period naturally takes place in the upper parts of the Smaland highlands; and in the case of the great lakes of Norrland, the western have a rather shorter ice period than the eastern. As to the seas, the formation of ice on the west and south coasts is rare, but in the central and northern parts of the Baltic drift-ice and a fringe of solid ice along the coast arrests See also:

NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation from the end of December to the beginning of April. Navigation in the southern part of the Gulf of Bothnia is impeded from the end of November to the beginning of May, and in the north the gulf is covered with ice from November to the last See also:

HALF

half of May. Snow lies 47 days on an average on the plains of Skane, while in the north it lies from 140 to 190 days. The northern summers find compensation for brevity in duration of See also:

SUNSHINE

sunshine and See also:

LIGHT

light. At Karesuando in 68° 26' N. and 1093 ft. above sea-level the See also:

sun is seen continuously above the See also:

HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon from the 26th of May to the 18th of July; at Haparanda for 23 See also:

HOURS, CANONICAL

hours, at Stockholm for 182 hours and at Lund for 171 hours at the summer See also:

SOLSTICE (Lat. solstitium, from sal, sun, and sistere, to stand still)

solstice. Atmospheric See also:

refraction causes the sun to be visible for periods varying from south to north for a See also:

QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter to half an See also:

HOUR

hour after it has actually sunk below the horizon. With the long See also:

TWILIGHT

twilight, perhaps the most exquisite period of a See also:

SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season which provides a See also:

SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of beautiful atmospheric effects, daylight lasts without interruption from the 16th to the 27th of June as far south as Hernosand (62° 38' N.).

The average annual rainfall for Sweden is 1972 in., locally in-creasing on the whole from north to south, and reaching a maximum towards the south-west, precipitation on this coast greatly exceeding that on the south-east. Thus the average in the north of Norrland is 16.53 in., in the south of Norrland 22.6 in. At See also:

BORAS

Boras, midway between the south end of Lake Vetter and the Cattegat, the average is 35.08 in., and 45.82 in. were registered in 1898. At Kalmar, however, on the Baltic opposite Oland, the average is 14.6 in. This is an extreme instance for the locality, but the minimum for all Sweden is found at Karesuando, with 12.32 in. The period of maximum is generally the latter half of summer, and the minimum in February and March; but the maximum occurs in October at coast stations in Skane and in the island of Gotland. The proportion of total precipitation which falls as snow ranges from 36% in the north to 9 % in the south. See also:

FLORA

Flora.—In the preceding physical description indications are given of the vast extent of forest in Sweden. The alpine treeless region occupies only the upper flanks of the spinal mountain-range above an elevation varying from 1800 ft. in the north to 3000 ft. in the south. It is belted by a See also:

ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone of See also:

birch woods, with occasional mountain-ash and See also:

ASPEN

aspen, varying in width from about 20 M. in the north to a fraction of a mile in the south. Below this extends a great region of firwood covering the whole country north-east of Lake Vener and north of the Dal River. The See also:

fir (Pinus sylvestris) and See also:

PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine (Pines abies) are the predominating trees Spruce is common, and even predominates in the higher parts (between the great valleys and immediately below the birch-belt) in the north of Norrland.

South of the southern limit indicated in the midlanddistrict of the great lakes, the See also:

OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak (Quercus pedunculata) appears as well as pine and fir; and, as much of this area is under cultivation, many other trees have been introduced, as the ash, See also:

MAPLE, SIR JOHN BLUNDELL, BART

maple, See also:

elm and lime. South of a line running, roughly, from the foot of Lake Vener to Kalmar on the Baltic coast the beech begins to appear, and in Skane and the southern part of the Cattegat seaboard becomes predominant in the woods which break the wide cultivated places. Of See also:

WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild flowering plants only a very few are endemic species (though more are endemic varieties) ; the bulk are immigrants after the last glacial epoch. Of these most are common to arctic lands, or occur as alpine plants in lower latitudes. The number of species decreases according to geographical See also:

DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution from south to north; thus while upwardsof moo are found in Skane, there are only about 700 in the midlands, 500 in the lower parts of southern Norrland and less than 200 in the extreme north. Fauna.—The effects of the great latitudinal range of Sweden on its climate and flora has its parallel to a modified extent in the case of fauna. Only a few animals are common to the entire country, such as the hare (Le us timidus) and the See also:

WEASEL (Putorius nivalis)

weasel ; although certain others may be added if the high mountain region be left out of consideration such as the See also:

squirrel, See also:

fox and various shrews. Among large animals, the common See also:

bear and the See also:

wolf have been greatly reduced in numbers even within later historic times. These and the See also:

LYNX (Lat. Lynx, Gr. airy, probably connected with X hovewv, to see)

lynx are now restricted to the solitary depths of the northern forests. Characteristic of the high mountainous region are the arctic fox, the See also:

GLUTTON, or WOLVERINE (Gulo luscus)

glutton and the See also:

LEMMING

lemming, whose singular intermittent migrations to the lowlands have a considerable temporary influence on the distribution of beasts and birds of See also:

PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey. There may also be mentioned the wild See also:

REINDEER

reindeer, which is rare, though large domesticated herds are kept by the Lapps. The See also:

elk, carefully preserved, haunts the lonely forests from the Arctic Circle even to the Smaland high-lands.

The See also:

roe-See also:

deer and red-deer are confined to the southern parts; though the first is found in the south of the midland plains. In these plains the fox is most abundant, and the See also:

BADGER

badger and See also:

HEDGEHOG, or URCHIN

hedgehog are found. See also:

Martens and otters are to some extent hunted for their skins. A white winter See also:

FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur is characteristic of several of the smaller animals, such as the hare, fox and weasel. The common and grey See also:

SEALS

seals are met with in the neighbouring seas, and Phoca foetida is confined to the Baltic. Among birds by far the greater proportion is migrant. Characteristic types common to the whole country are the See also:

TEAL (O.E. tele)

teal, See also:

SNIPE (0. Eng. Spite, Icel. Snipe, Dutch Snip, Ger. Schnepfe)

snipe, See also:

GOLDEN

golden See also:

PLOVER

plover and See also:

WAGTAIL (Wagsterd and Wagstyrt, 15th century fide T. Wright, Vol. Vocabularies, ii. 221, 253; Uuagtale, Turner, 1544, p. 53)

wagtail. In the northern mountains the See also:

PTARMIGAN (Lagopus mutus or alpinus)

ptarmigan is common, and like other creatures assumes a white winter See also:

DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress; ducks and other water-See also:

FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel)

fowl frequent the lakes; the golden See also:

EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila)

eagle, certain buzzards and owls are found, and among smaller birds the Lappland See also:

bunting (Plectrophanes laponicus) may be mentioned. In the coniferous forests the See also:

black See also:

GROUSE

grouse, See also:

HAZEL (0. Eng. hresell; cf. Ger. Hasel, Swed. and Dan. Kassel, &c.,; Fr. noiselier, coudrier)

hazel grouse and See also:

WILLOW (Salix)

willow grouse, capercailzie and See also:

WOODCOCK (O. Eng. wude-cocc, wudu-coc, and wudu-snite)

woodcock are the principal See also:

GAME

game birds; the See also:

crane is found in marshy clearings, birds of prey are numerous, and the Siberian See also:

jay in the north and the common jay in the south are often heard. But in the northern forests small birds are few, and even in summer these wilds give a strong general impression of lifelessness. In the midlands the See also:

partridge is fairly common, though not readily enduring the harder winters; and See also:

RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring-doves and stock-doves occur. The lakes are the homes of a variety of aquatic birds.

On the coasts a number of gulls and terns are found, also the See also:

eider-See also:

DUCK

duck and the sea-eagle, which, however, is also distributed far over the land. The species of See also:

REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis; ref ere, to creep; Gr. Ep7rety, whence the term " herpetology," for the science dealing with them)

reptiles and amphibians are few and chiefly confined to the southern parts. There are three species of snake, including the See also:

VIPER

viper; three of See also:

LIZARD (Lat. lacertal)

lizard; and eleven of batrachians. The rivers and lakes are generally well stocked with See also:

fish, such as See also:

salmon, See also:

TROUT (Salmo trutta)

trout of various species, See also:

GWYNIAD

gwyniad and See also:

VENDACE

vendace (especially in the north), See also:

pike, eels, See also:

perch of various species, turbot, See also:

BREAM (Abramis)

bream and See also:

ROACH (Leuciscus rulilus)

roach. The few sportsmen who have visited the higher parts of the great northern rivers have found excellent trout-fishing, with pike, perch, See also:

CHAR (Salvelinus)

char and See also:

GRAYLING (Thymallus)

grayling, the char occurring in the uppermost parts of the rivers, and the grayling below them. The See also:

FISHERIES

fisheries, both fresh-water and sea, are important, and fall for consideration as an See also:

INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry. The See also:

HERRING (Clupea harengus, Haring in German, le hareng in French, sill in Swedish)

herring, See also:

cod, flatfish, See also:

MACKEREL

mackerel and See also:

sprat are taken in the seas, and also great numbers of a small herring called strumming. In the brackish waters of the east coast sea fish are found, together with pike, perch and other fresh-water forms. The See also:

CRAYFISH (Fr. ecrevisse)

crayfish is common in many places in central and southern Sweden. Pearls are some-times found in the fresh-water See also:

MUSSEL (0. Eng. muscle, Lat. musculus, diminutive of mus, mouse, applied to small sea fish and mussels)

mussel (Margaritana margaritifera) ; thus a tributary of the Lilla Lule River takes its name, Perle River, from the pearls found in it. Among the lower marine animals a few types of arctic origin are found, not only in the Baltic but even in Lakes Vener and Vetter, having remained, and in the case of the lakes survived the See also:

CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change to fresh water, after the disappearance of the connexion with the Arctic seas across the region of the great lakes, the Baltic, and north-east thereof. The molluscan fauna is fairly rich, and See also:

INSECT

insect fauna much more so, even in the north.

In summer in the uplands and the north the See also:

MOSQUITO (Span. mosquito, a gnat, diminutive of mosca, a fly)

mosquito is sufficiently common to cause some little annoyance. See also:

PEOPLE

People.—The See also:

POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of Sweden in 1900 was 5,136,441. The See also:

CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census is taken in an unusual manner, being See also:

DRAWN

drawn up from the registries of the See also:

clergy according to parishes every ten years. Approximate returns are made by the clergy annually. The during the second half of the nineteenth See also:

CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century) ; one cause of this may be found in the fact that the percentage of married persons is lower than in most See also:

EUROPEAN

European countries. As regards social evils generally, however, the low, though undoubtedly improving, See also:

standard of Sweden has had one of its See also:

CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief reasons in the See also:

NATIONAL

national intemperance. In 1775 Gustavus III. made the See also:

sale of See also:

SPIRITS

spirits (brannvin) a See also:

government See also:

MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly, and the drinking, See also:

HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit was actually fostered. About 183o this evil reached its highest development, and it is estimated that nine gallons of spirits were then consumed annually per head of the population. Mainly through the efforts of See also:

Peter Wieselgren, See also:

dean of Gothenburg (1800-1877), a strong See also:

TEMPERANCE

temperance reform See also:

MOVEMENT

movement set in, and in 1855 important liquor See also:

LAWS

laws were passed to restrict both See also:

PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production and sale of intoxicating liquors. The so-called Gothenburg System, providing for municipal See also:

CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of the sale of intoxicants (see LIQUOR LAWS), came into full operation in Gothenburg in 1865. The temperance movement has had its See also:

REWARD

reward; the average of See also:

CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption of See also:

BEER

beer and spirits in Sweden is considerably lower than in Europe as a whole, though the effect of intoxicants is sometimes very apparent. A marked difference of temperament is noticeable between the Swedes and Norwegians, the Swedes being the more light-hearted and vivacious.

In some of the more remote. parts of the country old customs are maintained and picturesque local costumes still worn, as in Dalecarlia (q.v.). The Lapps moreover retain their distinctive dress. In other cases early costumes are preserved only as a See also:

HISTORICAL

historical See also:

REMINISCENCE (from Lat. reminisci, to remember)

reminiscence at festivities. following table shows the distribution of population in that See also:

YEAR

year through the Lan or administrative districts. The first See also:

COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column shows the older divisions of the See also:

COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county into provinces, the names and boundaries of which differ in many cases from the See also:

KIN (0. E. cyn, a word represented in nearly all Teutonic languages, cf. Du. kunne, Dan. and Swed. kon, Goth kuni, tribe; the Teutonic base is kunya; the equivalent Aryan root gan- to beget, produce, is seen in Gr. 'yEvos, Lat. genus, cf. "kind")

kin. These names, as appears elsewhere in this article, remain in common use. The distribution of provinces and kin between the three main territorial divisions, Norrland (northern), Svealand (central) and Gotaland (southern) is also indicated. Old Provinces. Lan. Area Pop. sq. m. 1900.

Norrland- . Norrbotten . 40,867 134,769 Lappland, Norrbotten Lappland, Vesterbotten . Vesterbotten . 22,771 143,735 Angermanland, Medel- . Vesternorrland i 9,855 232,311 See also:

pad . . . Jemtland, Herjedal . . Jemtland . . I 19,675 III,391 Helsingland, Gestrik- . Gefleborg . . 7,615 238,048 land Svealand- .

Kopparberg 11,524 217,708 Dalarne (Dalecarlia) . Vermland . . . . . Vermland . . 7,459 254,284 Orebro . 3,511 194,924 Vestmanland Vestmanland 2,612 148,271 Nerike Sodermanland . 2,631 167,428 Sodermanland Upsala . . . 2,051 123,863 Uppland Stockholm dist. 3,015 172,852 Stockholm, city 13 300,624 Gotaland- . 4,264 279,449 Ostergotland Ostergotland Vestergotland Skaraborg .

. 3 ,273 241,069 Dal Elfsborg 4,912 279,514 Bohuslan Goteborg och 1,948 337,175 Halland Bohus 1,900 141,688 Halland . . Smaland Jonkoping . . 4,447 203,036 Kronoberg . . 3,825 159,124 Kalmar . . 4,456 227,625 Blekinge . . . . . Blekinge 1,164 146,302 Skane . . , Kristianstad 2,488 219,166 . . Malmohus . 1,864 409,304 Gotland . . .

. . Gotland' . . 1,219 52,781 Oland 2 - - - Total . . 172,8753 5,136,441 The population in 19o8 was about 5,429,600. In 1751 it was 1,802,373, and in 1865, 4,114,141. The average annual increase was 7.86 per thousand in the 19th century, reaching a maximum of 10.39 in 1841-186o, before the period of extensive See also:

EMIGRATION (from Lat. emigrare; e, ex, out of, and migrare, to depart)

emigration set in. Emigrants numbered 584,259 men and 424,566 See also:

WOMEN

women between 1851 and 1900, these figures helping to See also:

account for the considerable excess of women over men in the See also:

RESIDENT

resident population, which in Iwo was as 1049 to 1000. The periods of greatest emigration were 1868-1873 and 1879-1893; the decline in later years is regarded as a favourable sign. The See also:

UNITED

United States of See also:

AMERICA

America receive a large majority of the emigrants, and only a very small percentage returns. The Swedish people belong to the Scandinavian branch, but the population includes in the north about 20,000 Finns and 7000 Lapps. Other foreigners, however, are few, and the population is as a whole homogeneous. Immigrants in the period 1851-1900 numbered only 165,357.

Population is naturally denser in the south than in the north, and densest of all in the districts along the southern coasts; thus Malmohus Lan has about 220 persons per sq. m., Goteborg och Bohus Lan 174 and Blekinge 127. In Norrland as a whole, however, there are less than 9 persons per sq. m., in Norrbottens Lan less than 4, and in the uplands of this division and Vesterbottens Lan much less than this. However, the annual increase per thousand has been greater in Norrland than elsewhere. The annual excess of births over deaths is high, the proportion being as 1.68 to 1. The See also:

BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth-See also:

RATE

rate between 1876 and 1900 averaged 28.51 per thousand ; the See also:

DEATH

death-rate between 1891 and 1900 was 16.36 per thousand, the lowest ever recorded over such a period for any European country. The lowest mortality is found in the districts about Lakes Vener and Vetter; the highest in Norbotten, the east midland districts, Slane, and Goteborg och Bohus Lan. The percentage of See also:

ILLEGITIMACY (from " illegitimate," Lat. illegitimus, not in accordance with law, hence born out of lawful wedlock)

illegitimacy is rather high (though it decreased ' The island and adjacent islets. 2 Island included in Kalmar Lan. 3 Including the four great lakes, Vener, Vetter, Malar Hjelmar, 3516 sq. m. Although the characteristic celebrations at weddings or periodical festivals are, as elsewhere, decreasing in favour, there are certain occasions which are observed as holidays with much ceremony. Such are See also:

CHRISTMAS (i.e. the Mass of Christ)

Christmas See also:

Day, and, not unnaturally in this northern land, Midsummer (June 23 and 24). The See also:

food of the people in the midlands and south is plentiful and See also:

GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good; in the remoter parts of the north an unfavourable summer is followed by a winter of scarcity or even See also:

FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

famine; and in these parts See also:

MEAT

meat is little used.

Additional information and Comments

There are no comments yet for this article.

» Add information or comments to this article.

Please link directly to this article:
Highlight the code below, right click, and select "copy." Then paste it into your website, email, or other HTML.

Site content, images, and layout Copyright © 2006 - Net Industries, worldwide.
Do not copy, download, transfer, or otherwise replicate the site content in whole or in part.

Links to articles and home page are always encouraged.

[back]
SWEDEN

[next]
SWEDEN, NORWAY AND