Online Encyclopedia
Search over 40,000 articles from the original, classic Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th Edition.
UPSALA, or UPPSALA
Online EncyclopediaEncyclopedia Home :: TUM-VAN
del.icio.us it!
|
See also:UPSALA, or UPPSALA , a See also:city of See also:Sweden, the seat of a university and of the See also:archbishop of Sweden, See also:chief See also:town of the See also:district (lan) of Upsala, 41 M. N. of See also:Stockholm by the See also:Northern See also:rail-way. Pop. (1900) 22,855. It has See also:water-communication with Stockholm by the See also:river Fyris and the northward See also:arm of See also:Lake See also:Malar, into which it flows. The older See also:part of the city lies on its sloping See also:west See also:bank, the See also:cathedral and See also:castle occupying dominating heights, with the university buildings below. West and See also:south is a See also:girdle of gardens. The new town occupies the See also:flat See also:east bank, and the whole is set in a fertile See also:plain.
The university, the chief and See also:oldest in Sweden, was founded in 1477 by Archbishop See also:Jakob Ulfsson. The university See also:building, completed in 1887, lies west of the cathedral. It has a See also:fine See also:vestibule with galleries, lit from a See also:cupola, a See also:senate-See also: The library building was erected in 1819-41. It is on the site of the Academia Carolina, founded by See also: The See also:revenue of the university itself, however, amounts to about £25,000, a considerable part of which is still See also:drawn from the See also:property with which Gustavus See also:Adolphus endowed it in 1624 from his private estates, amounting to 36o farms. There are about sixty professors, and a large number of assistants, lecturers and docents. The number of students is from 15oo to 2000, but it fluctuates considerably; the See also:average in 1886-90 was 1825. Every student must belong to a " nation " (landskap), of which there are thirteen, each comprising mainly students from a particular part of the See also:country. Each nation has generally its own See also:club-house and fund. There are also societies for See also:special branches of study, athletics and See also:music, especially singing, for which the studentshave a deservedly high reputation. A cap of See also: It suffered from several fires, and a thorough restoration was completed in 1893. The easternmost See also:chapel is the fine See also:mausoleum of Gustavus See also:Vasa. The castle was founded in 1548 by Gustavus I. but was not finished till a century later, when it was often used as a royal residence. It was destroyed by See also:fire in 1702, and is still in part ruined, but part is used as the offices of the See also:government of the lan and the residence of the See also:governor. Apart from the cathedral and a few insignificant buildings, there are no other See also:medieval remains. Among institutions may be mentioned the Ultuna Agricultural See also:Institute, immediately south of the city. The See also:industries are unimportant. The name of Upsala originally belonged to a See also:place still called Old Upsala nearly 2 M. N. of the See also:present city. This Upsala, mentioned as See also:early as the 9th century, was famous throughout Scandinavia for its splendid See also:heathen See also:temple, which, gleaming with See also:gold, made it the centre of the country, then divided into a See also:great number of small kingdoms. Three huge See also:grave mounds or barrows remain here. In the same place the first cathedral of the bishops of Upsala was also erected (c. 1roo). On the destruction of this building by fire, the inconvenient situation caused the removal in 1273 of the archiepiscopal see to the present city, then called See also:Ostra Aros,1 but within a short See also:time it came to be generally called Upsala. During the See also:middle ages the cathedral and the see of the archbishop made Upsala a See also:kind of ecclesiastical See also:capital. Here the See also:kings were crowned, after their See also:election had taken place at the See also:Mora Stones, 10 m. S.E. of Upsala. In 1567 See also:Eric XIV. murdered in the castle five of the most eminent men of the See also:kingdom, three of them belonging to the See also:family of See also:Sture. In 1593 was held the great See also:synod which marks the final victory of Protestantism in Sweden; in the same See also:year the university was restored by Charles IX. In the castle, See also:Christina, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, resigned her See also:crown to Charles X. in 1654. In 1702 nearly the whole city, with the castle and the cathedral, was burnt down. Among the teachers of the university who have carried its name beyond the boundaries of their own country the following (besides Linnaeus) deserve to be mentioned: Olof Rudbeck the See also:elder, the author of the Atlantica (163o-1702); Torbern See also:Bergman (1735-1784), the celebrated chemist; and Erik Gustaf See also:Geijer (1783-1847), the historian. UR, one of the most important of the early Babylonian cities, represented to-See also:day by the ruin mounds called Mughair (Moghair), or, more properly, Muqayyar (Mulayyar), " the pitched," or " See also:pitch-built." It See also:lay 140 M. S.E. of See also:Babylon (300 95' N., 46° 5' E.), about 6 m. S. of the present See also:bed of the See also:Euphrates, See also:half-way between that and the See also:low, pebbly See also:sand-See also: It continued, however, to be a place of religious and literary importance until the close of the Babylonian period. The ruins of the ancient site were partly excavated by See also:Loftus and See also: Between these two extremes were found evidences of restoration by Ishme-Dagan of Isin and Gimil-Sin of Ur, somewhere towards the middle of the 3rd See also:millennium B.C., and of Kuri-galzu, a Cossaean (Kassite) king of Babylon, of the 14th century B.C. See also:Nebuchadrezzar also claims to have rebuilt this temple. Taylor further excavated an interesting Babylonian building, not far from the temple, and part of an ancient Babylonian See also:necropolis. All about the city he found abundant remains of burials of later periods. Apparently, in the later times, owing to its sanctity, • Ur became a favourite place of sepulture, so that after it had ceased to be inhabited it still continued to be used as a necropolis. The great quantity of pitch used in the construction of these ruins, which has given them the name by which they are to-day known among the See also:Arabs, is See also:evidence of a peculiarly close relation with some pitch-producing neighbourhood, presumably See also:Hit, which lay at the head of the Sa'ade canal on which Ur was located. Large piles of slab and See also:scoria, in the neighbourhood of Ur, show, apparently, that the pitch was also used for manufacturing purposes, and that Ur was a manufacturing as well as a commercial city. Since Taylor's time Mughair has been visited by numerous travellers, almost all of whom have found ancient Babylonian remains, inscribed stones and the like, lying upon the See also:surface. The site is rich in remains, and is relatively easy to explore. See J. E. Taylor, See also:Journal of the Royal See also:Asiatic Society (1855), vol. xv.; W. K. Loftus, See also:Chaldaea and Susiana (1857); See also: . . the successive postfixed relational elements, whose vowels conform by certain subtle See also:laws of euphony to that of the root, which never changes. These suffixes differ also from the See also:case and verbal endings of true inflecting languages (See also:Aryan, Semitic) in their slighter See also:fusion with the root, with which they are rather mechanically See also:united (agglutinated) than chemically fused into a term in which root and relational See also:element are no longer separable. Hence it is that the roots, which in Aryan are generally obscured, blurred, often even changed past the possibility of See also:identification, inUral-Altaic are always in evidence, unaffected by the addition of any number of formative particles, and controlling the whole formation of the word. For instance, the See also:infinitive element mak of the Osmanli yaz-mak = to write becomes mek in sev-mek=to love (vowel harmony), and shifts its place in sev-il-mek = to be loved (imperfect fusion with the root), while the root itself remains unchanged as to form and position in sev-ish-il-mek = to be impelled to love,• or in any other possible See also:combination with suffixed elements. The facility with which particles are in this way tacked on produces an exuberance, especially of verbal forms, which in Osmanli, Finnish, Magyar, Tungus and Mordvinian may be said to run See also:riot. This is particularly the case when the numerous modal forms become further complicated by incorporating the See also:direct pronominal See also:object, as in the Magyar varjak=they await him, and the Mordvinian palasa=I embrace him. Thus arise endless verbal combinations, reckoned in See also:Turki at nearly 30,000, and past counting in the Ugrian group. Another marked peculiarity of the Ural-Altaic, at least as compared with the inflecting orders of speech, is weak subjectivity, the subject or See also:agent being slightly, the object of the See also:action strongly accentuated, so that " it was done by him " becomes " it was done with him, through him, or in his place " (aped eum). From this feature, which seems to be characteristic of all the branches, there follow some important consequences, such as a great preponderance of locative forms in the declension, —the nominative, and often even the possessive, being expressed by no special suffix. Hence also the object normally precedes the subject, while the See also:idea of See also:possession (to have) is almost everywhere replaced by that of being (to be), so that, even in the highly See also:developed Osmanli, " I have no See also:money " becomes " money-to-me not-is " (Akchehim yokdur). In fact the verb is not clearly differentiated from the noun, so that the conjugation is mainly participial, being effected by agglutinating pronominal, modal, temporal, negative, passive, causative, reciprocal, reflexive and other suffixes to nominal roots or gerunds: I write = See also:writing-to-me-is. Owing to this confusion of noun and verb, the same suffixes are readily attached indifferently to both, as in the Osmanli See also:jan=soul, jdn-ler = souls, and yazdr=he will write, yfizdr-ler = they will write. So also, by assimilation, the See also:Yakut kdtardor kotollor=the birds See also:fly (from root kot=flying), where kotol stands for kotor, and dor for lor, the Osmanli ler, or suffix of See also:plurality. But, notwithstanding this See also:wealth of nominal or verbal forms, there is a great dearth of general relational elements, such as the relative pronoun, grammatical gender, degrees of comparison, conjunctions and even postpositions. Byrne's remark, made in reference to Tungus, that " there is a great scarcity of elements of relation, very few conjunctions, and no true postpositions, except those which are given in the declension of the noun,'" is mainly true of the whole family, in which nouns constantly do See also:duty for formative suffixes. Thus nearly all the Ostiak postpositions are nouns which take the possessive suffix and govern other nouns in the genitive, precisely as in the See also:Hindi: admi-ki-tdrdf (men) gdya=See also:man-of-direction (in) I went =I went towards the man, where the so-called postposition tardf, being a feminine noun = direction, requires the preceding possessive particle to be also feminine (ki for ke). As there are thus only two classes of words—the roots, which always remain roots, and the suffixes, which always remain suffixes—it follows that there can be no true See also:composition or word-building, but only derivation. Even the numerous Magyar nominal and adjectival compounds are not true compounds, but merely two words in juxtaposition, unconnected by vowel harmony and liable to be separated in construction by intervening particles. Thus in See also:aran-sinii = gold-See also:colour = See also:golden, the first part aran receives the particle of comparison, the second remaining unchanged, as if we were to say " Bolder-colour " for " more golden "; and ata-f=relative becomes ata-m-f-a = my relative, with intrusion of the pronominal m =my. But, while these salient features are See also:common, or nearly common, to all, it is not to be supposed that the various See also:groups otherwise present any very close uniformity of structure or vocabulary. Excluding the doubtful members, the relationship between the several branches is far less intimate than between the various divisions of the Semitic and even of the Aryan family, so that, great as is, for instance, the See also:gap between See also:English and See also:Sanskrit, that between Lapp and Manchu is still greater. After the labours of See also:Castren, Csink, See also:Gabelentz, See also:Schmidt, BShtlingk, Zenker, See also:Almqvist, Radlov, Munkacsi-See also:Berat and especially Winkler, their genetic See also:affinity can no longer be seriously doubted. But the order of their genetic descent from a presumed common organic Ural-Altaic See also:language is a question presenting even greater difficulties than the analogous Aryan problem. The See also:reason is, not only because these groups are spread over a far wider range, but because the See also:dispersion from a common centre took place at a time when the organic speech was still in a very low See also:state of development. Hence the various groups, starting with little more than a common first germ, sufficient, however, to give a See also:uniform direction to their subsequent See also:evolution, have largely diverged from each other during their See also:independent development since the remotest prehistoric times. Hence also, while the Aryan as now known to us represents a descending See also:line of evolution from the synthetic to the See also:analytic state, the Ural-Altaic represents on the contrary an upward growth, ranging from the crudest syntactical arrangements in Manchu to a highly agglutinating but not true inflecting state in Finnish? No doubt Manchu also, like its congeners, had formerly possessive affixes and See also:personal elements, lost probably through See also:Chinese influences; but it can never have possessed the surprisingly rich and even superabundant relational forms so characteristic of 1 Gen. Prin. of Struct. of See also:Lang. i. 391 (See also:London, 1885). ' " Meine Ansichten See also:werden sich See also:im Fortgange ergeben, so namentlich See also:dass ich nicht entfernt diefinnischen Sprachen See also:fur flexivische halten kann " (H. Winkler, Uralaltaische Volker, 1884, i. p. 54). Yet even true See also:inflexion can scarcely be denied at least to some of the so-called See also:Yenisei Ostiak dialects, such as Kotta and others still surviving about the middle Yenisei and on its affluents, the Agul and Kan (Castren, Yen., Ostjak and Kort. Sprachlehre, 1858, See also:Preface, PP. v-viii). These, however, may be regarded as aberrant members of the family, and on the whole it is true that the Ural-Altaic See also:system nowhere quite reaches the stage of true inflexion. Magyar, Finn, Osmanli and other western branches. As regards the mutual relations of all the groups, little more can now be said than that they fall naturally into two See also:main divisions—Mongolo-Turkic and Finno-Ugro-Samoyedo-Tungusic—according to the several methods of employing the See also:auxiliary elements. Certainly Turkic lies much closer to Mongolic than it does to Samoyedic and Tungusic, while Finno-Ugric seems to occupy an intermediate position between Turkic and Samoyedic, agreeing chiefly in its roots with the former, in its suffixes with the latter. Finno-Ugric must have separated much earlier, Mongolic much later, from the common connexion, and the latter, which has still more than half its roots and numerous forms in common with Turkic, appears on the whole to be the most typical member of the family. Hence many Turkic forms and words can be explained only by reference to Mongolic, which has at the same time numerous relations to Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic that have been lost in Turkic and Tungusic. It may therefore be concluded that the Finno-Ugric migrations to the north and west and the Tungusic to the east had been completed while the Turkic and Mongolic tribes were still dwelling side by side on the See also:Altai See also:steppes, the probable See also:cradle of the Ural-Altaic peoples. How profoundly the several groups differ one from the other even in their structure is evident from the fact that such assumed universal features as unchangeable roots and vowel harmony are subject to numerous exceptions, often spread over wide areas. Not only is assimilation of final consonants very common, as in the Osmanli bulun-mak for the See also:Uighur bulul-mak, but the root vowel itself is frequently subject to umlaut through the influence of suffixed vowels, as in the Aryan family. Thus in the Surgut See also:dialect of Ostiak the long vowels of nominal stems become modified before the possessive suffix, a and a to i and o to u (Castren). It is still more remarkable to find that the eastern (Yenisei) Ostiak has even developed verbal forms analogous to the See also:Teutonic strong conjugation, the presents tabaq', abbatag'an and datpaq' becoming in the past Wag', abbatog'an and datpiyaq' respectively; so also taig, torg and targ, present, past and imperative, are highly suggestive of Teutonic inflexion, but more probably are due to Tibetan influences. In the same dialects many nouns form their plurals either by modifying the root vowel, in combination with a suffixed element, or by modification alone, the suffix having disappeared, as in the English See also:foot feet, See also:goose—geese. So also vowel harmony, highly developed in Finnish, Magyar and Osmanli, and of which two distinct forms occur in Yakutic, scarcely exists at all in Cheremissian, Votyak and the Revel dialect of Esthonian, while in Mordvinian and Syryenian; not the whole word, but the final vowels alone are harmonized. The unassimilated Uighuric kilur-im answers to the Osmanli kilur-um, while in Manchu the See also:concordance is neglected, especially when two consonants intervene between the root and the suffixed vowels. But too much See also:weight should not be attached to the phenomenon of vowel harmony, which is of comparatively See also:recent origin, as shown in the oldest Magyar texts of the 12th century, which abound in such discordances as halal-nek, tiszta-seg, for the modern halal-nak, tiszta-sag. It clearly did not exist in the. organic Ural-Altaic speech, but was independently developed by the different branches on different lines after the dispersion, its origin being due to the natural tendency to See also:merge root and suffix in one harmonious whole. This progressive vocalic harmony has been compared to a sort of progressive umlaut, in which the suffixed vowels are brought by assimilation into harmony with those of the root. All vowels are broadly divided into two categories, the guttural or hard and the palatal or weak, the principle requiring that, if the root vowel be hard, the suffixed must also be hard, and See also:vice versa. But in some of the groups there is an intermediate class of " neutral " vowels, which do not require to be harmonized, being indifferent to either See also:category. In accordance with these general principles the vowels in some of the leading members of the Altaic family are thus classified by L. See also:Adam : 2- Gutturals. Palatals. Neutrals. Finnish u, o, a fl, o, a . e, i Magyar u, o, a u, o e, i Mordvinian u, o, a a, i e, i Syryenian . 8, a a, i, e u, i Osmanli u, o, a, e u, o, e, i Mongolian . u, o, a u, 8, a Buriat u, o, a ii, o, a Manchu 6, o, a e A close See also:analogy to this See also:law is presented by the Irish See also:rule of " broad to broad " and " slender to slender," according to which under certain conditions a broad (a, o, u) must be followed in the next syllable by a broad, and a slender (e, i) by a slender. Obvious parallelisms are also such forms in Latin as annus, perennis, ors, avers, Lego, diligo, where, however, the root vowel is modified by the affix, not the affix by the root. But such instances suffice to show ' De l'harmonie See also:des voyelles dons See also:les langues Ouralo-Altaiques (See also:Paris, 1874). that the See also:harmonic principle is not See also:peculiar to the Ural-Altaic, but only more systematically developed in that than in most other linguistic families. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
» Add information or comments to this article.
Please link directly to this article:
Highlight the code below, right click, and select "copy." Then paste it into your website, email, or other HTML. Site content, images, and layout Copyright © 2006 - Net Industries, worldwide. |
|
|
[back] UPPINGHAM |
[next] URAL MOUNTAINS |