SANSKRIT , the name applied by See also:

• HINDU

Before that time classical scholarshad been unable to determine the true relations between the then known See also:

• LANGUAGES

The See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

Hund; da:an= See also:

• BIAS
• BIAS (from the Fr. biais, of unknown origin; the derivation from Lat. bifax, two-faced, is wrong)

The sonant aspirate h is likewise non-original, being usually de-rived from original sonant aspirated mutes, especially gh, e.g. hamsa=xis (for xays), anser, Ger. See also:

• GANS, EDUARD (1797-1839)

2. a and See also:

• ANI (anc. Abnicum)

(asvam), asvandm ='br rwv, equum (equorum). The form with inserted nasal (doubt-. less for anam, as in Zend aspanam), which is exclusively used in the later language, is also the prevailing one in the There are, however, a few genitives of a-stems in original am (for a-am), which also appear in Zend, Professor Lanman enumerating a dozen in-stances, some of which are, however, doubtful, while others are merely conjectural. The Sanskrit verb system resembles that of the Greek in variety and completeness. While the Greek excels in nicety and definite- ness of modal distinction, the Sanskrit surpasses it in Verb primitiveness and transparency of formation. In this system. See also:

• PART

A prominent feature of the later Sanskrit syntax is the so-called gerund or indeclinable participle in See also:

• TEA (Chinese cha, Amoy dialect t€)

Here, as in the other tenses in which it appears, it has invariably the accent, as being the distinctive See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

In the Vedic See also:

• PROSE

As regards the syntactic functions of the three preterites—the imperfect, perfect and aorist—the classical writers make virtually no distinction between them, but use them quite indiscriminately. In the older language, on the other hand, the imperfect is chiefly used as a narrative tense, while the other two generally refer to a past See also:

• ACTION

The grounds on which this theory is recommended are those of logical consistency. In the analogous cases of interchange between r and at., as well as l and al, most scholars have indeed been wont to regard the syllabic r and F as weakened from original ar and al, while the native grammarians represent the latter as produced from the former by increment. Similarly the verb as (is), " to be," loses its vowel wherever the radical syllable is unaccented, e.g. dsti, Lat. est—smds, s(u)See also:

• MUS

But, whether the agglutinationists be right or wrong, a theory involving the priority of the diphthongal over the simple sounds can hardly be said to be one of great prima facie See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

Thus, though augmented verb-forms in Greek cannot always have the accent on the augment as in Sanskrit, they have it invariably as little removed from it as the accentual restrictions will allow; e.g. dbharam, €¢Epov: dbharama, 4EpoMcv: dbharamahi, /Ep6µsOa. The most striking coincidence in noun declension is the accentual distinction made by both languages between the " strong " and " weak " cases of monosyllabic nouns—the only difference in this respect being that in Sanskrit the accusative plural, as a rule, has the accent on the case-ending, and consequently shows the weak form of the stem; e.g. stem See also:

• PAD

The former—also called Kharoshthi or Gandhara alphabet (lipi)—which is manifestly derived from a Semitic (probably Aramaean) source, has left no traces on the subsequent development of Indian writing. The Indo-Pali (or Brahmi) alphabet, on the other hand, from which the modern Indian alphabets are derived, is of more uncertain origin. The similarity, however, which several of its letters present to those of the old Phoenician alphabet (itself probably derived from the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

The decimal system of See also:

• CIPHER, or CYPHER (from Arab. sifr, void)

D. Whitney treats the whole language historically; as does also J. Wackernagel's not yet completed Altindische Grammatik. The first Sanskrit See also:

• DICTIONARY

G. Buhler, Indische Palaographie (1896); A. C. See also:

• BURNELL, ARTHUR COKE (1840–1882)
• BURNELL, ROBERT (d. 1292)

Nor can we expect many important See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

The Brahmanical See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

I but like them are chiefly ritualistic, treating of special ceremonies not dealt with, or dealt with only imperfectly, in the latter works, to which they thus stand in the relation Aranyakas of supplements. The Upanishads, however, are of a and purely speculative nature, and must be looked upon as It: the first attempts at a systematic treatment of See also:

• META

" See also:

• STRING

Scholars, however, usually include under this See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

Yaska, again, quotes several predecessors in the same branch of science; and it is probable that the original works on this subject consisted merely of lists of words similar to those handed down by him. 5. Jyotisha, or See also:

• ASTRONOMY (from Gr. &arpov, a star, and v ,usiv, to classify or arrange)

Along with the Sutras may be classed a large number of supplementary treatises, usually called Pariiishfa (rapaaeir6usva), on various subjects connected with the sacred texts and Vedic religion generally. After this brief characterization of the various branches of Vedic literature, we proceed to take a rapid survey of the several Vedic collections. A. Rigveda.1—The Rigveda-samhita has come down to us in the 1 The Rigveda has been edited, together with the commentary of Sayana (of the 14th century), by Max Muller (6 vols., See also:

• LONDON

See also:

• COWELL, JOHN (1554—1611)

Again, the hymns addressed to each deity are arranged in a descending order, according to the number of verses of which they consist. Manc)See also:

• ALA

The ninth manclala, on the other hand, consists entirely of hymns (114) addressed to See also:

• SOMA (Sanskrit for " pressed juice," from the root su, to press)

See also:

• GRIFFITH, SIR RICHARD JOHN (1784-1878)

A similar arrangement seems also to suggest itself in other portions of the book. This mai ala stands somewhat apart from the preceding books, both its language and the general character of many of its hymns betraying a more recent origin. In this respect it comes nearer to the level of the Atharvavedasamhita, with which it is otherwise closely connected. Of some 1350 l ik-verses found in the Atharvan, about 550, or rather more than 40%, occur in the tenth mandala. In the latter we meet with the same tendencies as in the Atharvan to metaphysical See also:

• SPECULATION

But, as there is abundant evidence to show that even then not only had the text of the hymns suffered corruption, but their language had become antiquated to a considerable extent, and was only partly understood, the period during which the great See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

Next to him, in the affections of the people, stands Agni (ignis), the god of fire, invoked as the genial inmate of the Aryan See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

The Kaushitaka is, upon the whole, far more concise in its style and more systematic in its arrangement—features which would lead one to infer that it is probably the more modern work of the two. It consists of thirty chapters (adhyaya); while the Aitareya has See also:

• FORTY

It consists of five books (aranyaka), three of which, the first and the last two, are of a liturgical nature, treating of the ceremony called mahavrata, or great See also:

• VOW (Lat. votum, vow, promise: cf. VOTE)

A new edition of the work was published, with translation, by A. B. See also:

• KEITH
• KEITH, FRANCIS EDWARD JAMES (1696-1758)
• KEITH, GEORGE (c. 1639-1716)
• KEITH, GEORGE KEITH ELPHINSTONE, VISCOUNT (1746-1823)

A Grihya-sutra is still quoted under his name by later writers. The Asvalayana Srauta-sutra 6 consists of twelve, the Grihya of four, adhyayas. Regarding Sankhayana still less is known; but he, too, was doubtless a comparatively modern writer, who, like Asvalayana, founded a new school of ritualists. Hence the Kaushitaki-brahmana, adopted (and perhaps improved) by him, also goes under his name, just as the Aitareya is sometimes called Asvalayana-brahmana. The Sankhayana Srauta-sutra consists of eighteen adhyayas. The last two chapters of the work are, however, a later addition,' while the two preceding chapters, on the contrary, present a comparatively archaic, brahmana-like appearance. The Grihya-sutra' consists of six chapters, the last two of which are likewise later appendages. The Sambavya Grihya-sutra, of which a single MS. is at present known, seems to be closely connected with the preceding work. Professor Bttihler also refers to the Rigveda the Velsish(hadh2rmasastra,8 composed of mixed sutras and couplets. A few works remain to be noticed, bearing chiefly on the textual form and traditionary records of the Rik-samhita. In our remarks on the Vedangas, the Pratiskhyas have already been referred to as the chief repositories ofsiksha or Vedic phonetics. Among these works the Rik-pratisakhya9 occupies the first place.

The original composition of this important work is ascribed to the same Sakalya from whom the See also:

• VULGATE (from Lat. vulgus, the common people)

Cf. Keith, J.R.As.S. (1908), p. 363 sqq., where the date of the first and more original portion (adhy. 1-8) is tentatively fixed at 600-550 B.C. ' Text, commentary and translation published by E. B. Cowell, in the Bibl. Ind. Also a translation by F. Max Muller in S.B.E. vol. i. ' Cf.

A. Hillebrandt, " Ritual-Litteratur," in Biihler's Grundriss (1897)- 'Both works have been published with the commentary of 3argya Narayana, by native scholars, in the Bibl. Ind. Also the text of the Grihya, with a German translation, by A. Stenzler. 6 See A. See also:

• WEBER, CARL MARIA FRIEDRICH ERNEST VON (1786–1826)
• WEBER, WILHELM EDUARD (1804-1891)

Oldenberg (Ind. See also:

• STUD

How long after Sakalya this particular Saunaka lived we do not know; but some generations at all events would seem to See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

One and the same saman or tune may thus be sung to many different verses; but, as in teaching and practising the tunes the same verse was invariably used for a certain tune, the term " saman," as well as the special technical names of samans, are not infrequently applied to the verses themselves with which they were ordinarily connected, just as one would quote the beginning of the text of an English hymn, when the tune usually sung to that hymn is meant. For a specimen of the way in which samans are sung, see Burnell, Arsheyabrahmana, p. xlv. seq. The Indian chant somewhat resembles the Gregorian or See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

Meyer (Berlin, 1878). 12 Edited, with commentary, by A. A. Macdonell (Oxford, 1886). 1' Burnell, Arsheyabrahmana, p. xli. "Edited and translated by J. See also:

• STEVENSON, ADLA1 EWING (1835- )
• STEVENSON, ROBERT (1772-1850)
• STEVENSON, ROBERT LEWIS BALFOUR (1850-1894)

no longer required but had been so used at one time or other. The verses of the Purvarchika are arranged on much the same plan as the family-books of the Rik-samhita, viz. in three sections containing the verses addressed to Agni, Indra and Soma (pavamana) respectively—each section (consisting of one, three, and one adhyayas respectively) being again arranged according to the metres. Hence this part is also called Chhandas- (metre) archika. Over and above this natural arrangement of the two archikas, there is a purely formal division of the texts into six and nine prapathakas respectively, each of which, in the first part, consists of ten decades (daat) of verses. We have two recensions of the Samhita, belonging to the Ranayaniya and Kauthuma schools, the latter of which is but imperfectly known, but seems to have differed but slightly from the other. Besides the six prapathakas (or five adhyayas) of the Purvarchika, some schools have an additional " forest " chapter, called the Aranyaka-samhita, the tunes of which—along with others apparently intended for being chanted by anchorites—are partly contained in the Aranya-gana. Besides the two tune-books belonging to the Purvarchika, there are two others, the Cha-gang (" modification-songs ") and Uhya-gana, which follow the order of the Uttararchika, giving the several samanhymns chanted at the Soma sacrifice, with the modifications the tunes undergo when applied to texts other than those for which they were originally composed. The Saman hymnal, as it has come down to us, has evidently passed through a long course of development. The practice of chanting probably goes back to very early times; but the question whether any of the tunes, as given in the Ganas, and which of them, can lay claim to an exceptionally high antiquity will perhaps never receive a satisfactory See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

Moreover, the contents of these works—as might indeed be expected from the nature of the duties of the priests for whom they were intended—are of an extremely arid and technical character, though they all are doubtless of some importance, either for the textual criticism of the Sarphita or on account of the legendary and other information they supply. These works are as follows: (1) the Tandya-maha- (or Praudha-) brahmana,' or " great " Brahmana—usually called Panchavim.fa-brahmana from its " consisting of twenty-five " adhyayas—which treats of the duties of the udgatars generally, and especially of the various kinds of chants; (2) the Shadvim.(.a,1 or " twenty-See also:

• SIXTH

3 A. Weber, " Omina et Portenta," Abhandlungen of Berlin Royal See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Oertel, J. Am. Or. S. vol. xvi. See also Whitney's account of the work, Proceedings of Am. Or. Soc. (May 1883). 7 Trans!. by F. M. Muller, S.B.E. vol. i.order, thus supplementing the Arsheya-brahmana, which enumerates their technical names; and the Srauta-sutras of Latyayana8 and Drahyayana, of the Kauthuma and Ranayaniya schools respectively, which differ but little from each other, and form complete manuals of the duties of the udgatars. Another sutra, of an exegetic character, the Anupada-sutra, likewise follows the Panchavimsa, the difficult passages of which it explains.

Besides these, there are a considerable number of sutras and kindred technical treatises bearing on the prosody and phonetics of the sama-texts. The more important of them are—the 13iktantra,9 apparently intended to serve as a See also:

• PRATI, GIOVANNI (1815–1884)

From the Kathas proper two or three schools seem early to have branched off, the Prachya- (eastern) Kathas and the Kapishthala-Kathas, the text-recension of the latter of whom has recently been discovered in the Kapishthala-katha-samhita, and probably also the Charayaniya-Kathas. The Kalapas also soon became sub-divided into numerous different schools. Thus from one of Kalavin's immediate disciples, Haridru, the FIaridraviyas took their origin, whose text-recension, the Haridravika, is quoted together with the Kathaka as early as in Yaska's Nirukta; but we do not know whether it differed much from the original Kalapa texts. As regards the Taittiriya-samhita, that collection, too, in course of time gave rise to a number of different schools, the text handed down being that of the Apastambas; while the contents of another recension, that of the Atreyas, are known from their Anukramani, which has been preserved. The four collections of old Yajus texts, so far known to us, while differing more or less considerably in arrangement and verbal points, have the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

(1872). 9 Ed. and trans., A. Burnell (See also:

• MANGALORE

Bifhler, S.B.E. vol. ii. '" Books I., II., ed. by L. v. See also:

• SCHRODER
• SCHRODER, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1744-1816)
• SCHRODER, SOPHIE (1781-1868)

Stud. xi., xii. '° Edited, with Sayana's commentary, by Rajendralala Mitra, Bibl. Ind.; N. Godabole, Anand. See also:

• SER

The reputed originator of this school and its text-recension is Yajilavalkya Vajasaneya (son of Vajasani). The result of the rearrangement of the texts was a collection of sacrificial mantras, the Vajasaneyi-samhita, and a Brahmana, the Satapatha. On account of the greater lucidity of this arrangement, the Vajasaneyins called their texts the White (or clear) Yajurveda—the name of Black (or obscure) Yajus being for opposite reasons applied to the Charaka texts. Both the Samhita and Brahmana of the Vajasaneyins have come down to us in two different recensions, viz. those of the Madhyandina and Kanva schools; and we find besides a considerable number of quotations from a Vajasaneyaka, from which we cannot doubt that there must have been at least one other recension of the Satapatha-brahmana. The difference between the two extant recensions is, on the whole, but slight as regards the subject-matter; but in point of diction it is quite sufficient to make a comparison especially interesting from a philological point of view. Which of the two versions may be the more original cannot as yet be determined; but the phonetic and grammatical differences will probably have to be accounted for by a See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

Not infrequently, however, they show considerable discrepancies of reading, which may be explained partly from a difference of recension and partly as the result of the See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

2 Trans. by F. M. Muller, S.B.E. vol. xv. 2 Text and translation published by E. B. Cowell, Bibl. Ind. Also trans. by F. M. Muller, S.B.E. vol. xv. ' Text, commentary and translation published by E. Roer, Bibl.

Ind. ; also translation by F. M. Muller, S.B.E. vol. xv., and others. 'Edited in the Madhyanclina recension, with the commentary of Mahidhara, and the vv. it or the Kanva text, by A. Weber (1849); trans. by R. H. T. Griffith (Benares, 1899). 'Translation by E. Roer, Bibl. Ind.

; by F. M. Muller, S.B.E. vol. i. 'Edited by A. Weber, who also translated the first chapter into German. English translation (5 vols.) by J. Eggeling, in S. B. E.a Shashti-patha (i.e. " consisting of 60 paths ") are mentioned together as See also:

• OBJECTS

Except in books 6-10 (M.), which treat of the construction of fire-altars, and recognize the sage Sandilya as their chief authority, Yajilavalkya's opinion is frequently referred to in the Satapatha as authoritative. This is especially the case in the later books, part of the Brihad-aranyaka being even called Yajuavalkiya-kanda. As regards the age of the Satapatha, the probability is that the main body of the work is considerably older than the time of Panini, but that some of its latter parts were considered by Papini's critic Katyayana to be of about the same age as, or not much older than, Paninl. Even those portions had probably been long in existence before they obtained recognition as part of the canon of the White Yajus. The contemptuous manner in which the doctrines of the Charakaadhvaryus are repeatedly animadverted upon in the Satapatha betrays not a little of the odium theologicum on the' part of the divines of the Vajasaneyins towards their brethren of the older schools. Nor was their animosity confined to mere literary war-fare, but they seem to have striven by every means to gain ascendancy over their rivals. The consolidation of the Brahmanical See also:

• HIERARCHY (Gr. iepos, holy, and apxe.v, to rule)

The Manava-Srauta-sutrai0 seems to consist of eleven veda. books, the first nine of which treat of the sacrificial ritual, while the tenth contains the ulva-sutra; and the See also:

• ELEVENTH

"See P. v. Bradke, Z.D.M.G. vol. See also:

• XXXVI

Winternitz (See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

A See also:

• MANUAL

If in this phase of superstitious belief the old gods still find a place, their character has visibly changed so as to be more in accordance with those mystic rites and magic performances and the part they are called upon to play in them, as the promoters of the votary's cabalistic practices and the averters of the malicious designs of mortal enemies and the demoniac influences to' which he would ascribe his fears and failures as well as his bodily ailments. The fourth Veda may thus be said to supplement in a remarkable manner the picture of the domestic life of the Vedic Aryan as presented in the Grihya-sutras or See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

H. Oldenberg, S.S.E. vol. xxx. 5 An account of the Vaikh. Dharmasutra given by T. See also:

• BLOCH, MARK ELIEZER (c. 1723–1799)

Weber, Ind. Stud. iv.; another ed. in Benares Sansk. Ser. (1888). 'The work has been published by W. D. Whitney, with a trans. lation and a commentary by an unknown author, called Tribhashyaratna, i.e. " See also:

• JEWEL, JOHN (1522-1571)

See also:

• MSS

The Atharvan has come down to us in a much less satisfactory state of preservation than any of the other Sarphitas, and its interpretation, which offers considerable difficulties on account of numerous popular and out-of-the-way expressions, has so far received comparatively little aid from native sources. Less help, in this respect, than might have been expected, is afforded by a recently published commentary professing to have been composed by Sayana Acharya; serious doubts have indeed been thrown on the authenticity of its ascription to the famous Vedic exegetic. Of very considerable importance, on the other hand, was the discovery in See also:

• KASHMIR, or CASHMERE

Index verborum, by Whitney, in J. Am. Or. S. vol. xu., Eng. trans. by R. H. T. Griffith (in verse) (2 vols., Benares, 1897) ; by W. D. Whitney (with a critical and exegetical commentary), revised and edited by Ch. R. Lanman (2 vols., Harvard Or. Ser., 1905) ; and (with some omissions) by M.

Bloomfield, S.B.E. vol. xlii. ; cf. also See also:

• BLOOM (from A.S. bloma, a flower)

Connected with this Sutra are upwards of seventy Pariiishtas,' or supplementary treatises, mostly in metrical form, on various subjects bearing on the performance of grihya rites. The 1st sutra-work to be noticed in connexion with this Veda is the Saunakiya Chaluradhyayika,' being a Pratisakhya of the Atharva-samhita, so called from its consisting of four lectures (adhyaya). Although Saunaka can hardly be credited with being the actual author of the work, considering that his opinion is rejected in the only rule where his name appears, there is no reason to doubt that it chiefly em-bodies the phonetic theories of that teacher, which were Afterwards perfected by members of his school. Whether this Saunaka is identical with the writer of that name to whom the final redaction of the Sakalapratisakhya of the Rik is ascribed is not known; but it is worthy of note that on at least two points where Sakalya is quoted by Panini, the Chaturadhy-yika seems to be referred to rather than the Rik-pratisakhya. Saunaka is quoted once in the Vajasaneyi-pratisakhya; and it is possible that Katyayana had the Chaturadhyayika in view, though his reference does not quite See also:

• TALLY

We only know that in the 3rd century B.C. there existed several dialects in different parts of northern India which differed considerably from the Sanskrit; and Buddhist tradition states that Gautama Sakyamuni himself, in the 6th century B.C., used the local See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

Negelein, part i. (19o9). ' Edited and translated by W. D. Whitney. ' For a full list of existing translations of and essays on the Upanishads, see Introd. to Max Mailer's " Upanishads," S.B.E. i. Cf. also P. Deussen, Sechzig Upanishads (1897).indeed that popular religious See also:

• MOVEMENT

The Mahabadrata,s i.e. " the great (poem or See also:

• TALE (O.Eng. talu, number, account, story; the word is common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Zahl, number, Erzahlung, narrative, Du. taal, speech, language)

But, by his son's See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

On the way one by one drops off, till Yudhishthira alone, with the dog, reaches the See also:

• GATE

It is divided into eighteen books, and a supplement, entitled Harivamsa, or genealogy of the god Hari (Krishna-Vishnu). In the introduction, Vyasa, being about to dictate the poem, is made to say (i. 81) that so far he and some of his disciples knew 8800 couplets; and farther on (i. ror) he is said to have composed the collection relating to the Bharatas (bharata-samhita), and called the Bharatam, which, not including the episodes, consisted of 24,000 slokas. Now, as a matter of fact, the portion relating to the See also:

• FEUD

A.D. 8o), according to which " even among the Indians, they say, See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

If in this way a stock of heroic poetry had gradually accumulated which reflected an earlier state of society and See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

But, whilst Bharata and Kuru heroic lays may, and probably do, go back to a much earlier age, it seems hardly possible to assume that the Pandava epic in its present form can have been composed before the Greek invasion of India, or about 300 B.C. Moreover, it is by no means impossible that the epic narrative was originally composed—as some other portions of the works are—in prose, either continuous or mixed with snatches of verse. Nay, in the opinion of some scholars, this poem (as well as, the Ramayana) may even have been originally composed in some popular dialect, which would certainly best account for the irregular and apparently prakritic or See also:

• DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS

(II.) On his return to Ayodhya he is to be appointed heir-apparent (yuva-raja, i.e. juvenis rex) ; but Bharata's mother persuades the king to banish his eldest son for fourteen years to the See also:

• WILDERNESS

The last book, as will be noticed from this bare outline, presents a somewhat strange appearance. There can be little doubt that it is a later addition to the work; and the same is apparently the case as regards the first book, with the exception of certainportions which would seem to have formed the beginning of the original poem. In these two books the character of Rama appears changed: he has become deified and identified with the god Vishnu, whilst in the body of the poem his character is simply that of a perfect man and See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

The so-called Gauda or See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

intense pathos, and high poetic See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

The former are by some authorities divided into three groups of six, according as one or other of the three primary qualities of external existence—goodness, darkness (See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

Wilson, Essays on the Religion of the Hindus, ii. pp. 67 sqq. s There are several Indian editions of these two works. The Bhagavata has been partly printed, in an edition de luxe, with a French translation at See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

MSS. ii. 47.versions of its tenth book, treating of the story of Krishna, has powerfully influenced the religious belief of India. From the little we know regarding the Upa-puranas, their character does not seem to differ very much from that of the principal sectarian Puranas. Besides these two classes of works there is a large number of so-called Sthala-puranas, or See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

The number of original Tantras is fixed at sixty-four, but they still await a critical examination at the hands of scholars. Among the best known may be mentioned the Rudrayamala, Kuldrnava, Syama-rahasya and Kalika-tantra. 3. Artificial, Epics and Romances.—In the early centuries of the Christian era a new class of epic poems begins to make its appearance,differing widely in character from those that Modern had preceded it. The great national epics, composed epics. though they were in a language different from the ordinary vernaculars, had at least been drawn from the living stream of popular tradition, and were doubtless readily under-stood and enjoyed by at least the educated classes of the people. The later productions, on the other hand, are of a decidedly artificial character, and must necessarily have been beyond the reach of any but the highly cultivated. They are, on the whole, singularly deficient in incident and invention, their subject matter being almost entirely derived from the old epics. Nevertheless, these works are by no means devoid of merit and interest; and a number of them display considerable descriptive power and a See also:

• WEALTH

In a comparatively modern couplet he is represented as having been one of nine literary " gems " at the court of a king See also:

• VIKRAMADITYA

Thus the recently discovered Buddhacharita,' a Sanskrit poem on the life of the re-former, which was translated into See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

(3) The Kiratarjuniyg,8 or combat between the Pandava prince Arjuna and the god Siva, in the See also:

• GUISE
• GUISE, HOUSE OF

B. Cowell (Oxford, 1893) ; trans. by the same, S.B.E. See G. Buhler, " See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Stenzler; also text, with commentary, by S. P. Pandit; also repeatedly in India with and without translation. 5 Text and Latin trans. of cantos 1-7 published by F. Stenzler; an English trans. by R. T. H. Griffith; also several Indian editions, with comm. Text with comm. and Latin trans., edited by F. Benary; with Eng. trans., in verse, by W. See also:

• YATES, EDMUND HODGSON (1831–1894)
• YATES, MARY ANN (1728-1787)
• YATES, RICHARD (1818-1873)

Magha probably lived in the 9th century, though Bhho Daji, in his See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

The oldest of these is the Daiakumaracharita,14 or " ad-ventures of the ten princes "—a vivid, though probably exaggerated, picture of See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

Troyer, with a French trans., based on insufficient material, have been superseded by M. A. See also:

• STEIN, CHARLOTTE VON (1742-1827)
• STEIN, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH KARL, BARON VOM

E. Senart. 14 Ed. H. H. Wilson; again (Bombay Skt. Ser.) pt. i., G. Buhler; ii., P. Peterson; freely trans. by P. W. Jacob. 15 Ed.

Fitzedw. Hall (Bibl. Ind.) ; with comm. J. Vidyasagara (Calcutta, 1874). 15 Ed. P. Peterson (See also:

• BOMB

M. See also:

• RIDDING, GEORGE (1828-1904)

H. Wilson, Select Specimens of the See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

It is not, however, till some five or six centuries later that we meet with the first real dramas, which mark at the same time the very culminating point of Indian dramatic composition. In this, as in other departments of literature, the earlier works have had to make way for later and more perfect productions; and no trace now remains of the intermediate phases of development. Thus we know of at least five predecessors of Kalidasa from whom nothing but a few quotations have been preserved. Here, however, the problem presents itself as to whether the existing dramatic literature has naturally grown out of such popular religious performances as are alluded to by Patanjali, or whether some foreign influence has intervened at some time or other and given a different direction to dramatic composition. The question has been argued both for and against the probability of Greek influence; but 'it must still be considered as sub judice; the latest investigator, M. Sylvain Levi, having given a decided opinion against outside influence. There are doubtless some curious points of resemblance between the Indian drama and the Modern See also:

• ATTIC (i.e. "in the Attic style ")

The dialogue is invariably carried on in prose, plentifully interspersed with those neatly turned lyrical stanzas in which the Indian poet delights to depict some natural See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

Such at least is evidently the case as regards the modern See also:

• BENGALI

See also:

• ARNOLD
• ARNOLD, BENEDICT (1741-1801)
• ARNOLD, GOTTFRIED (1666-1714)
• ARNOLD, MATTHEW (1822-1888)
• ARNOLD, SAMUEL (1740--18o2)
• ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN (1832-1904)
• ARNOLD, THOMAS (1745-1842)

Regnaud. favour, recovered his eyesight, and, after seeing his son as king, to have died at the ripe age of a hundred years and ten days. Accordgadraka, See also:

• ING

The interest of the action is, on the whole, well sustained; and, altogether, the piece presents a vivid picture of the social manners of the time, whilst the author shows himself imbued with a keen sense of See also:

• HUMOUR (Latin humor)

The king falls in love with her, and the queen tries to keep them apart from each other. but, on learning the See also:

• MAIDEN, or MAID

Williams. The Vikramorvasi has been edited critically by S. P. Pandit, and the southern text by R. Pischel. It has been translated by H. H. Wilson and E. B. Cowell. 2 Edited critically by S. P.

Pandit; translated by C. H. Tawney (1875), and into German by A. Weber (1856), and L. Fritze (1881). ' Edited by Taranatha Tarkavachaspati, and by C. Cappeller in Bohtlingk's Sanskrit-Chrestomathie; with commentary (Bombay, 18951: translated by H. H. Wilson. ' Edited by Madhava Chandra Ghosha and translated by P. See also:

• BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON (1825—1899)
• BOYD, ROBERT BOYD, LORD (d. c. 1470)
• BOYD, ZACHARY (1585?-1653)

Cowell.to succumb from the wounds he has received, when, through the timely intervention of the goddess Gauri, he is restored to his former condition. The piece seems to have been intended as a See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

The poet is considered by native critics to be not only not inferior to Kalidasa, but even to have surpassed him in his Uttararamacharita, which certainly contains many fine poetic passages See also:

• INSTINCT

Contrary to the general practice, it has no prologue, and Sanskrit alone is employed in it. Tradition relates that it was composed by Hanuman, the monkey general, and inscribed on rocks; but, Valmiki, the author of the Ramayana, This is the commentator's explanation of the name, whilst M. Levi would render it by " the divine throat." ° Edited by F. H. Trithen (1848); with commentary, A. Barooah (Calcutta, 1877) and Parab (Bombay, 1892) ; translated by J. Pickford (1871). ' Edited with commentary and translation (See also:

• NAGPUR

' Edited by R. G. Bhandarkar (1876) ; translated by H. H. Wilson. Whether, as M. S. Levi suggests, the fact of the play consisting of ten acts points to its having been composed in See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

1° Printed with Mohanadasa's commentary (Bombay, 1861). being afraid lest it might throw his own poem into the shade, Hanuman allowed him to cast his verses into the sea. Thence fragments were ultimately picked up by a merchant, and brought to King Bhoja, who directed the poet Damodara Mira to put them together and fill up the lacunae; whence the present composition originated. Whatever particle of truth there may be in this story, the " great drama " seems certainly to be the production of different hands. " The language," as Wilson remarks, " is in general very harmonious, but the work is after all a most disjointed and nondescript composition, and the patchwork is very glaringly and clumsily put together." It is nevertheless a work of some interest, as compositions of mixed dramatic and declamatory passages of this kind may have been common in the early stages of the dramatic art. The connexion of the poet with King Bhoja, also confirmed by the Bhoja-prabandha, would bring the composition, or final redaction, down to about the loth or i ith century. A Mahana(aka is, however, already referred to by Anandavardhana (9th century); and, besides, there are two different recensions of the work, a shorter one commented upon by Mohanadasa, and a longer one arranged by Madhusudana. A Damodara See also:

• GUPTA

860. The Prabodha-chandrodaya,' or " the moon-rise of intelligence' composed by Krishi amisra about the 12th century, is an allegorical play, in six acts, the dramatis personae of which consist entirely of abstract ideas, divided into two conflicting hosts. Of numerous inferior dramatic compositions we may mention as the best—the Anarghya-raghava, by Murari; the See also:

• BALA

These verses are either of a purely descriptive or of an erotic character; or they have a didactic tendency, being intended to convey, in an attractive and easily remembered form, some moral truth or useful counsel. An excellent specimen of a longer poem, of a partly descriptive, partly erotic character, is Kalidasa's Meghad4ta,8 or " cloud messenger, " in which a banished Yaksha 1 Edited (Bombay, 1884, 1893) by K. T. See also:

• TELANG, KASHINATH TRIMBAK (1850-1893)

See also:

• BROCKHAUS, FRIEDRICH ARNOLD (1772-1823)

6 Ed. P Peterson (Bombay, 1888). 7 Ed P. Peterson and Durgaprasada (Bombay, 1886). 8 Text and translation by H. H. Wilson; with vocabulary by S. See also:

• JOHNSON, ANDREW
• JOHNSON, ANDREW (1808–1875)
• JOHNSON, BENJAMIN (c. 1665-1742)
• JOHNSON, EASTMAN (1824–1906)
• JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796–1876)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD (1573–1659 ?)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR (1781–1850)
• JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1709-1784)
• JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS (1664-1729)
• JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM (1715–1774)
• JOHNSON, THOMAS

Sankara Acharya, the great Vedantist, who seems to have flourished about A. D. 800, is credited with several devotional poems, especially the See also:

• ANANDA

Under the name of Bhartrihari have been handed down three centuries of sententious couplets,'2 one of which, the nita-.fataka, relates to See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

Griffith, Specimens of Old Indian Poetry. Ed. Klatt (1873); German transl. O. Kressler(1906). 11 Edited by Rajendralala Mitra, Bibl. Ind. ; with translation and notes (Madras, 1895). 1z Translation, in English verse, by C. H. Tawney. 13 Ed.

R. See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

This work is ascribed to Kshemankara, and was probably composed in the time of Bhoja (who died in 10J3) from older stories in the Maharashtra dialect. The original text has, however, undergone many modifications, and is now known in several different recensions. Of about the same date are two great-houses of fairy tales, composed entirely in 'slokas, viz. the rather wooden and careless Brihat-kathd-manjari,6 or " great cluster of story," by Kshemendra, also called Kshemankara, who wrote, c. 1020-1040, under King Ananta of Kashmir; and the far superior and truly poetical Katha-saril-sagard,7 or " ocean of the streams of story," composed in some 21,500 couplets by Somadeva, early in the 12th century, for the recreation of Ananta's widow, Suryavati, grandmother of King Harshadeva. Both these works are based on an apparently lost work, viz. Gunadhya's Brihat-katha, or " great story," which was composed in some popular dialect, perhaps as early as the 1st or 2nd century of our era, and which must have rivalled the Mahabharata in extent, seeing that it is stated to have consisted of See also:

• IOO

These rules are interspersed i Edited by Kosegarten, by G. Battler and F. Kielhorn; translated by Th. Benfey, E. Lancereau, L. Fritze; edited in Purnabhadra's recension by J. Hertel, in Harv. Or. Ser. (1908). 2 Ed. and transl. F.

Johnson, ed. P. Peterson and others in India. Ed. H. Uhle (Leipzig, 1881); cf. R. F. See also:

• BURTON, JOHN HILL (1809–1881)
• BURTON, ROBERT (1577-1640)
• BURTON, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM (1816–f goo)
• BURTON, SIR RICHARD FRANCIS (1821-1890)
• BURTON, WILLIAM EVANS (1804-1860)

Weber, Ind. Stud, xv. 6 Edited, with translation and notes, by L. v. Mankowski (Leipzig, 1892); chapters 1-8 edited and translated by Sylvain Levi, Journ. As. (1886); cf. F. Lacote, Essai sur Gunadhya et la Brihatkatha (1909), where part of a Nepalese version is given. Edited by H. Brockhaus (1839–1862) ; by Durgapratapa(Bombay, 1889) ; translated by C. H. Tawney, Bibl.

Ind. (,880–1886). 'Cf. J. Jolly's exhaustive treatise, Recht and Sitte, in Buhler's Grundriss (11896).with stanzas or " gathas," in various metres, either composed by the author himself or quoted from elsewhere, which generally give the substance of the preceding rules. One can well understand why such couplets should gradually have become more popular, and should ultimately have led to the appearance of works entirely composed in verse. Such metrical law-books did spring up in large numbers, not all at once, but over a long period of time, extending probably from about the beginning of our era, or even earlier, down to well-nigh the See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

One could, how-ever, scarcely account for the disappearance of the Dharmasutras of some of the most important schools except on the ground that they were given up in favour of other works; and it is not very likely that this should have been done, unless there was some See also:

• GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding)

From several 'slokas quoted from Manu by Varahamihira, in the 6th century, it would appear that the text which the great astronomer had before him differed very considerably from our Manusmriti. It is, however, possible that he referred either to the Brihat-Manu (Great 9 The standard edition is by G. C. See also:

• HAUGHTON, SAMUEL (1821-1897)
• HAUGHTON, WILLIAM (fl. 1598)

The oldest existing commentary on the Manava-Dharmasastra is by Medhatithi, who is first quoted in 1200, and is usually supposed to have lived in the 9th or loth century. He had, however, several predecessors to whom he refers as puree, " the former ones." The most esteemed of the commentaries is that of Kulluka Bhatta, composed at Benares in the 15th century. Next in importance among Smritis ranks the Yajnavalkya Dharmahastra.l Its origin and date are not less uncertain—except that, YB,na- in the opinion of Professor Stenzler, which has never been va/l a. questioned, it is based on the Manusmriti, and represents a more advanced stage of legal theory and definition than that work. Yajnavalkya, as we have seen, is looked upon as the founder of the Vajasaneyins or White Yajus, and the author of the Satapatha-brahmana. In the latter work he is represented as having passed some time at the court of King Janaka of Videha (Tirhut) ; and in accordance therewith he is stated, in the See also:

• INTRODUCTORY

It does not concern itself with smrltl religious and moral precepts, but is strictlyconfined to law. Of this work again there are at least two different recensions. Besides the text translated by Dr Jolly, a portion of a larger recension has come to light in India. This version has been commented upon by Asahaya, " the peerless "—a very esteemed writer on law who is supposed to have lived before Medhatithi (? 9th century)—and it may therefore be considered as the older recension of the two. But, as it has been found to contain the word distant, an adaptation of the Roman denarius, it cannot, at any rate, be older than the 2nd century; indeed, its date is probably several centuries later. The Paraiara-smriti4 contains no chapter on See also:

• JURISPRUDENCE (Lat. jurisprudenlia, knowledge of law, from jus, right, and prudentia, from providere, to foresee)
• JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE

This treatise is held in high esteem all over India, with the exception of the Bengal or Gauriya 1 Edited, with a German translation, by F. Stenzler. 2 Translated by H. T. Colebrooke. 3 Ed. (Bib). Ind., 1885) J. Jolly, trsl. S.B.E. xxxiii. ° Edited in Bombay Sansk. Ser.

(1893) ; translated Bibl. Ind. (1887). The chapter on inheritance (daya-vibhaga) translated by. A. C. Burnell (1868). 5 See West and Biihler, Digest, i. p. 55. A different view is ex-pressed by A. Burnell, Dayavibhaga, p. xiii.school of law, which recognizes as its chief authority the digest of its founder, Jimutavahana, especially the chapter on succession, entitled Dayabhaga.° Based on the Mitakshara are the Smritichandrika,7 a work of great common-sense, written by Devanda Bhatta, in the 13th century, and highly esteemed in Southern India; and the Viramitrodaya, a compilation consisting of two chapters, on achara and vyavahara, made in the first half of the 17th century by Mitramisra, for Raja Virasirpha, or Birsinh Deo of See also:

• ORCHHA, or URCHHA (also called Tehri or Tikamgarh)

II. PHILOSOPHY.3—The contemplative Indian mind shows at all times a strong disposition for metaphysical speculation. In the old religious lyrics this may be detected from the very first. Not to speak of the abstract nature of some even of the oldest Vedic deities, this propensity betrays itself in a certain mystic symbolism, tending to refine and spiritualize the original purely physical character and activity of some of the more prominent gods, and to impart a deep and subtle import to the rites of the sacrifice. The primitive worship of more or less isolated elemental forces and phenomena had evidently ceased to satisfy the religious wants of the more thoughtful minds. Various syncretist tendencies show the See also:

• DRIFT (from "drive ")

In any case, however, we can only assume that speculative minds seized upon it as offering the most satisfactory (if not the only possible) explanation of the great problem of phenomenal existence with its unequal distribution of weal and woe. It is certainly a significant fact that, once established in Indian thought, the doctrine of metempsychosis is never again called in question—that, like the fundamental idea on which it rests, viz. the essential sameness of the immaterial element of all sentient beings, the notion of samsara has become an See also:

• AXIOM (Gr. &iwµa)

Garbe, Philosophy of Ancient India (See also:

• CHICAGO
• CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF

Macdonell, Hist. of Sanskrit Lit. p. 387. and to this only, that the Indian metaphysician takes up the great problems of life—the origin of man and the universe, and the relation between mind and matter. It is not likely that these speculations were viewed with much favour by the great body of Brahmans engaged in ritualistic practices. Pict that the metaphysicians actually discountenanced the ceremonial worship of the old mythological gods as vain and nugatory. On the contrary, they expressly admitted the propriety of sacrifices, and commended them as the most meritorious of human acts, by which man could raise himself to the highest degrees of mundane existence, to the worlds of the Fathers and Devas. But, on the other hand, metaphysical speculation itself had gradually succeeded in profoundly modifying the original character of the sacrificial ritual: an allegorical meaning had come to be attached to every item of the ceremonial, in accordance with the strange monotheistic-pantheistic theory of the Brahmanas which makes the performance of the sacrifice represent the See also:

• BUILDING

It needed but the See also:

• IDENTIFICATION (Lat. idem, the same)

2, 5. 2 From such allusions, or statements, in the Upanishads, some scholars have actually gone the length of claiming the origin of this cardinal doctrine of Vedanta philosophy for the Kshatriyas. It seems to us, however, very much more likely that these anecdotes were introduced by the Brahmanical sages of set purpose to win over their worldly patrons from their materialistic tendencies to their own idealistic views. Kapila, the author of the materialistic Sankhya, is supposed to have been a Kshatriya, and so, we know, was the Sakya Muni. 'Cf. P. Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads (Edinburgh, 1906). ' Cf. Mundaka-upanishad, i. 4, 5, where these two divisions are called " the lower (apara) and the higher (para) knowledge." ' These works have all been printed with commentaries in India; and they have been partly translated by J. Ballantyne and by K. M.

Banerjea. The best general view o the systems is to be obtained from H. C. Colebrooke's account, Misc. Essays, i. (2nd ed.), with Professor Cowell's notes. Compare also the brief abstractparatively recent period, none of them being probably older than the early centuries of our era. By far the ablest general See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Its principal object, however, is to ascertain the religious (chiefly ceremonial), duties enjoined in the Veda, and to show how these duties must be performed, and what are the special merits and rewards attaching to them. Hence arises the necessity of determining the principles for rightly interpreting the Vedic texts, as also of what forms its only claim to being classed among speculative systems, viz. a philosophical examination of the means of, and the proper method for, arriving at accurate knowledge. The foundation of this school, as well as the composition of the Sutras or aphorisms, the Mimamsd-darsana,7 which constitute its chief doctrinal authority, is ascribed to Jaimini. The Sutras were commented on by See also:

• SAHARA

In its essential features it remains to this day the prevalent belief of Indian thinkers, and enters largely into the religious life and convictions of the people. It is an idealistic See also:

• MONISM (from Gr. µ6vos, alone)

B. Cowell and A. E. Gough (1882). 7 Text and Commentary, Bibl. Ind. 8 Edited by Th. Goldstucker, completed by E. B. Cowell; also ed. Anand-Ser. (Bombay, 1892).

o Vamia-brdhmana, Introd. ro Katha-upanishad, ii. 5, 12. 'r Katha-up., i. 3, 10; ii. 6, 7. the Undeveloped there is the Person (purusha), the all-pervading, characterless (alinga). Whatsoever knows him is liberated, and attains immortality." Here the Vedantist commentator assures us that the Great Undeveloped, which the Sankhyas would claim as their own primary material principle (pradhana, prakriti), is in reality See also:

• MAYA

Others say, there was the non-existent alone here in the beginning, one only, without a second—and from the non-existent the existent was born. But how could this be, my son? How could the existent be born from the non-existent? No, my son, only the existent was here in the beginning, one only, without a second." The foundation of the Vedanta system, as " the completion of the Veda," is naturally ascribed to Vyasa, the mythic arranger of the Vedas, who is said to be identical with Badarayana the reputed author of the Brahma- (or Sariraka-) sutra, the authoritative, though highly obscure, summary of the system. The most distinguished interpreter of these aphorisms is the famous See also:

• MALABAR

This religious teacher, who flourished in the first half of the 12th century, caused a See also:

• SCHISM

E. Gough, The Philosophy of the Upanishads, also follows chiefly Sankara's interpretation. ' Brahmasutra, iii. I. 32-34. 6Translated by G. Thibaut, S.B.E.; German, P. Deussen. 6 Professor Cowell assigns him to about the loth century. 7 Bibl. Ind.forms, for the benefit of creatures; and allowing considerable play to the doctrine that faith (bhakti), not knowledge (vidya), is the means of final emancipation. This phase of Indian religious belief, which has attached itself to the Vedanta theory more closely than to any other, makes its appearance very prominently in the Bhagavadgita, the episode of the Mahabharata, already referred to—where, however, it attaches itself to Sankhya-yoga rather than to Vedanta tenets—and is even more fully developed in some of the Puranas, especially the Bhagavata.

Some scholars would attribute this doctrine of fervid devotion to Christian influence, but it is beady alluded to by Panini and in the Mahabhashya. In the antlilya- (Bhakti-) sutr¢ 8 the author and date of which are unknown, the doctrine is systematically propounded in one hundred aphorisms. According to this doctrine mundane existence is due to want of faith, not to ignorance; and the final liberation of the individual soul can only be effected by faith. Knowledge only contributes to this end by removing the mind's foulness, unbelief. Its highest phase of development this doctrine probably reached in the Vaishnava sect founded, towards the end of the 15th century, by Chaitanya, whose followers subsequently grafted the Vedanta speculations on his doctrine. In opposition both to Sankara's theory of absolute unity, and to Ramanuja's doctrine of qualified unity—though leaning more towards the latter—Madhva Acharya, or Purnaprajna (A. D. 1118-1198), started his dvaita, or duality doctrine, according to which there is a difference between God and the human soul (jiva), as well as between God and nature; whilst the individual souls, which are innumerable, eternal, and indestructible, are likewise different from one another; but, though distinct, are yet united with God, like See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

In opposition to the Vedanta school, which maintains the eternal coexistence of a spiritual principle of reality and an unspiritual principle of unreality, the Sankhya assumes the eternal coexistence of a material first cause, which it calls either See also:

• MULA

Cowell. 9 Last by G. A. Jacob. 10 E. Rber, Lecture en the Sankhya Philosophy (Calcutta, 1854); B. St Hilaire, Me-moire sur le Sankhya (1852); R. Garbe, Sankhya Philosophie (Leipzig, 1894) ; Sankhya and Yoga (See also:

• STRASSBURG, or STRASBURG (French Strasbourg)

Of the commentaries on the Sutras, the most approved are those of Aniruddha' and Vijnana Bhikshu,' a writer probably of the latter part of the 16th century, who also wrote an independent treatise, the Sankhya-sara,7 consisting of a prose and a verse part, which is probably the most useful compendium of Sankhya doctrines. 4. The Yoga system is merely a schismatic branch of the preceding school, holding the same opinions on most points treated in common yoga in their Sutras, with the exception of one important point, the existence of God. To the twenty-five principles (tattva) of the Nirisvara Sankhya, the last of which was the Purusha, the Yoga adds, as the twenty-sixth, the Nirguna Purusha, or Self devoid of qualities, the Supreme God of the system. Hence the Yoga is called the Sesvara (theistical) Sankhya. But over and above the purely speculative part of its doctrine, which it has adopted from the sister school, the theistic Sankhya has developed a complete system of See also:

• MORTIFICATION

The Nyaya' and Vaiseshika are but separate branches of one and the same school, which supplement each other and the Nyaya doctrines of which have virtually become amalgamated and into a single system of philosophy. The special part yatbe- taken by each of the two branches in the elaboration of the system may be briefly stated in Dr Roer's word s:—$t'jt a. " To the Nyaya belong the logical doctrines of the forms of syllogisms, terms and propositions; to the Vaiseshikas the systematical explanation of the categories (the simplest meta-physical ideas) of the metaphysical, physical and psychical notions—which notions are hardly touched upon in the Nyaya-sutras. They differ in their statement of the several modes of proof—the Nyaya asserting four modes of proof (from See also:

• PERCEPTION (from Lat. percipere, to perceive)

Translations by H. T. Colebrooke and J. Davies. 3 A writer makes him the pupil of Panchasikha, whilst another even identifies him with Kalidasa; cf. F. Hall, Sankhyasara, p. 29. ' Translated by H. H. Wilson. A Chinese translation of a commentary resembling that of Gaudapada is said (M.

Muller, India, p. 360) to have been made during the Ch'en dynasty (A.D. 557-583). ' Translated by R. Garbe, Bibl. Ind. e Edited by Garbe (Harvard, 1895) ; translated (Leipzig, 1889). 7 Edited by F. Hall. a Besides Colebrooke's Essay, with Cowell's notes, see Ballantyne's translation of the Tarka-sangraha and the introduction to Roer's translation of the Bhashaparichheda, and his See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

It distinguishes between individual or living souls (jivatman), which are numerous, infinite and eternal, and the Supreme Soul (Paramatman), which is one only, the seat of eternal knowledge, and the maker and ruler (livara) of all things. It is by his will and agency that the unconscious living souls (soul-atoms, in fact) enter into union with the (material) atoms of mind, &c., and thus partake of the pleasures and sufferings of mundane existence. On the Hindu See also:

• SYLLOGISM (Gr. ovAAoytvµos, from en', and Xb-yor, an argument resulting from combination, i.e. of premises)

While the original works of the S~ stems. former are written mostly in a popular (the Ardhamagadhi) dialect, the northern Buddhists, it is true, have produced a considerable body of literature,12 composed in a kind of hybrid Sanskrit, but only a few of their sacred books have as yet been published ;13 and it is, moreover, admitted on all hands that for the pure and authentic Bauddha doctrines we have rather to look to the Pali scriptures of the southern branch. Nor can we do more here than briefly allude to the theories of a few of the less prominent heterodox systems, however interesting they may be for a history of human thought. The Charvakas, an ancient sect of undisguised See also:

• MATERIALISM (from Lat. materia, matter)

Ballantyne. 1° Edited and translated, with commentary, by E. Roer. " Edited and translated, with commentary, by E. B'Cowell. 12 See B. H. See also:

• HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON (1800-1894)

Senart; Vajra-parichchheda, edited M. Muller; Saddharma-pundarika, translated by E. Burnouf (" See also:

• LOTUS

Panini's system of arrangement differs entirely from that usually adopted in our grammars, viz. according to the so-called parts of speech. As the work is composed in aphorisms intended to be learnt by heart, economy of memory-matter was the author's See also:

• PARAMOUNT (Anglo-Fr. paramont, up above, par el mont, up or on top of the mountain)

In the Katha-saritsagara, a modern collection of popular tales mentioned above, Panini is said to have been the pupil of Varsha, a teacher at Pataliputra, under the reign of Nanda, the father (?) of Chandragupta (315–291 B.c.). The real date of the great grammarian is, however, still a matter of uncertainty. While Goldstucker 5 attempted to put his date back to ante-Buddhist times (about the 7th century B.c.), Professor Weber held that Panini's grammar cannot have been composed till some time after the invasion of See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Biihler's paper, Orient and Occident, p. 691 seq. ' A. Burnell, On the Aindra School of Sanskrit Grammarians. 5 Panini, his Place in Sanskrit Literature (1861) 6 See Lassen, Ind. Alt. i. p. 723; M. Muller, Hist. of A.S. Lit. p. 521; A. Weber, Ind. Stud. v. p.

2 seq.to the task of perfecting his system have sunk into oblivion. The earliest of his successors whose work has come down to us (though perhaps not in a separate form) is Katyayana, the KetyB-author of a large collection of concise critical notes, called Varttika, intended to supplement and correct the Sutras, or Yana. give them greater precision. The exact date of this writer is likewise unknown; but there can be little doubt that he lived at least a century after Panini. During the See also:

• INTERVAL

Although Patanjali probably gives not a few traditional grammatical examples mechanically repeated from his predecessors, those here mentioned are fortunately such as, from the very nature of the case, must have been made by himself. The Mahabhashya is not a continuous commentary on Panini's grammar, but deals only with those Sutras (some 1720 out of a total of nearly 4000) on which Katyayana had proposed any Varttikas, the critical discussion of which, in connexion with the respective Sutras, and with the views of other grammarians expressed thereon, is the sole object of Patanjali's commentatorial remarks. Though doubts have been raised as to the textual condition of the work, Professor Kielhorn has clearly shown that it has probably been handed down in as good a state of preservation as any other classical Sanskrit work. Patanjali is also called Gonardiya—which name Professor Bhandarkar takes to mean " a native of Gonarda," a place, according to the same scholar, probably identical with See also:

• GONDA

Weber. Goldstucker and M. Muller take the opposite view. ' Part of this work was first printed by Ballantyne ; followed by a lithographed edition, by two Benares pandits (1871); and a photo-lithographic edition of the text and commentaries, published by the India Office, under Goldstiicker's supervision (1874) ; finally, a critical edition by F. Kielhorn. For a review cf the literary and antiquarian data supplied by the work, see A. Weber, Ind. Stud. xiii. 293 seq. The author's date has been frequently discussed, most thoroughly and successfully, by R. G. Bhandarkar in several papers.

See also A. Weber, Hist. of I.L. p. 223. 1° Lassen, Ind. Alt. ii. 341, 362. 11 Edited by Pandit Bala Sastri (Benares, 1876–1878). 12 As it is quoted by Vopadeva it cannot be later than the 12th century. on a more practical system of arrangement—the principal heads under which the grammatical matter was distributed usually Modern being: rules of euphony (sandhi); inflection of nouns grammars. (naman), generally including composition and secondary derivatives; the verb (¢khyata); and primary (ktid-anta) derivatives. In this way a number of grammatical schools' sprang up at different times, each recognizing a special set of Sutras, round which gradually gathered a more or less numerous body of commentatorial and subsidiary treatises. As regards the grammatical material itself, these later grammars supply comparatively little that is not already contained in the older works—the difference being mainly one of method, and partly of terminology, including modifications of the system of technical letters (anubandha).

Of the Chandra. grammars of this description hitherto known, the Chandra- vyakaran¢ is probably the oldest—its author Chandra Acharya having flourished under King Abhimanyu of Kashmir, who is supposed to have lived towards the end of the 2nd century,' and in whose reign that grammarian is stated, along with others, to have revived the study of the Mahabhashya in Kashmir. Only portions of this grammar, with a commentary by Anandadatta, have, however, as yet been recovered. The Katantra,3 or Kahl pa, is ascribed to Kumara, the god of war, whence this school is also sometimes called Kaumara. The real Katanira. author probably was Sarva-varman, who also wrote the original commentary (vritti), which was afterwards recast by Durgasimha, and again commented upon by the same writer, and subsequently by Trilochana-dasa. The date of the Katantra is unknown, but it will probably have to be assigned to about the 6th or 7th century. It is still used in many parts of India, especially in Bengal and Kashmir. Other grammars are—the Sarasvati Prakriya, by Anubhuti Svarupacharya; the Sankshipta-sara, composed by Kramadisvara, and corrected by Jumara-nandin, whence it is also called Jaumara; the Haima-vyakarana,4 by the Jaina Hema- writer Hemachandra (1088-1172, according to Dr Bhao chandra, Darn ; the Mugdha-bodha,6 composed, in the latter part of the 13th century, by Vopadeva, the court pandit of King Mahadeva (Ramaraja) of Devagiri (or Deoghar) ; the Siddhanta-kaumudi, the favourite text-book of Indian students, by Bhattoji Dikshita (17th century) ; and a See also:

• CLEVER

1140), is valuable as offering the only available commentary on the Ganas which contain many words of unknown meaning. The Dhalupathas are complete lists of the roots (dhatu) of the language, with their general meanings. The lists handed down under this title,' as, apparently arranged by Panini himself, have been commented upon, amongst others, by Madhava. The Unadi-sutras are rules on the formation of irregular derivatives. The oldest work of this kind, commented upon by Ujjvaladatta,10 is by some writers ascribed to Katyayana Vararuchi, by others even to Sakatayana. The oldest known treatise on the philosophy of grammar and syntax is the Vakya-padiya, i composed in verse, by Bhartrihari (? 7th century), whence it is also called Harikarika. Of later works on this subject, the Vaiyakarana-bhushana, by Kondabhatta, and the Vaiyakarana-siddhanta-manjusha, by Nagojibhatta, are the most important. IV. LEXICOGRAPHY.—Sanskrit dictionaries _(kosha), invariably composed in verse, are either homonymous or synonymous, or partly Didion- the one and partly the other. Of those hitherto published, s Sasvata's Anekartha-samuchchaya,i2 or " collection of See also:

• ARK (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Arche, adapted from the Lat. area, chest, cf. arcere, to shut up, enclose)„ a chest, basket or box. The Hebrew word tebah, translated in the' A.V. by " ark," is used in the Old Testament (1)

While in the later homonymic vocabularies the words are usually arranged according to the alphabetical order of the final (or sometimes the initial) letter, and then according to the number of syllables, Sasvata's principle ' Dr Burnell, in his Aindra School, proposes to apply this term to all grammars arranged on this plan. 2 Professor Bhandarkar, Early History of the Dekhan, p. 20, pro-poses to fix him about the end of the 3rd century. 3 Edited, with commentary, by J. Eggeling. * The Prakrit part edited and translated by R. Pischel. Edited by .O. Bohtlingk (1847). 6 Edited and translated by J. R. Ballantyne.

For other modern grammars see Colebrooke, Essays, ii. p. 44; Rajendralala Mitra, Descriptive Catalogue, i., Grammar. ' Edited and translated by F. Kielhorn. Edited by J. Eggeling. 9 Edited by N. L. Westergaard; also given in Bohtlingk's edition of Panini. i° Text and commentary, edited by Th. Aufrecht. ii Edited, with commentaries, at Benares.

i2 Edited by Th. Zachariae.of arrangement—viz. the number of meanings assignable to a word—seems to be the more primitive. The work probably next in time is the famous Amara-See also:

• KOSHER, or KASHER (Hebrew clean, right, or fit)

A full account of Sanskrit dictionaries is contained in the preface to the first edition of H. H. Wilson's Dictionary, reprinted in his Essays on Sanskrit Literature, vol. iii. V. PROSODY (Chhandas).—The oldest treatises on prosody have already been referred to in the account of the technical branches of the later Vedic literature. Among snore modern Prosody. treatises the most important are the Miita-sanjtvani, a commentary on Pingala's Sutra, by Halayudha (perhaps identical with the author of the glossary above referred to) ; the Vrittaratn¢kara, or " jewel-mine of metres," in six chapters, composed before the 13th century by Kedara Bhatta, with several commentaries; and the Chhando-mafiijari, likewise in six chapters, by Gangadasa. The Srutabodha, ascribed, probably wrongly, to the great Kalidasa, is a comparatively insignificant treatise which deals only with the more common metres, in such a way that each stanza forms a specimen of the metre it describes. The Vritta-darpana treats chiefly of Prakrit metres. Sanskrit prosody, which is probably not surpassed by any other either in variety of metre or in harmoniousness of See also:

• RHYTHM (Greek pvBµds, from bap, to flow)

See also:

• MUSIC

Deslongchamps (1839-1845). 14 A grammarian of this name is mentioned as the See also:

• TUTOR (Lat. tutor, guardian, tueri, to watch over, protect)

(Bombay 1898). Rhetoric. description—involving such See also:

• NICE

In the concluding stanza he is stated to have composed his work at the court of King Muiija, who is probably identical with the well-known Malaya prince, the uncle and predecessor of King Bhoja of Dhara. The Dasarupa was early commented upon by Dhanika, possibly the author's own brother, their father's name being the same (Vishnu). Dhanika quotes Rajasekhara, who is supposed to have flourished about A.D. t000,4 but may after all have to be put somewhat earlier. The Sarasvati-kanlhabharana, " the See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

A.D. 100) rests on fact is very doubtful. Of equal authority, but doubtless some- what more modern, is the Suiruta (-samhita),8 which Susruta is said to have received from Dhanvantari, the Indian See also:

• AESCULAPIUS (Gr. 'AoKXiprtos)

Pischel, Gott. Gel. A. (1883) ; G. Biihler, Ind. Ant. (1884), p. 29. s Edited by Mahesa Chandra Nyayaratna (1866). ° Text and translation in Bibl. Ind. ; edited by Jibananda Vidyasagara (1897). Edited by Jibananda Vidyasagara (Calcutta, 1877).

Cf. A. F. R. Hoernle, " Studies in Anc. Indian Medicine " (J. Roy. As. S. 1906-9). e Edited by Madhusudana Gupta (1835-1837), and by Jibananda Vidyasagara 0873).of six chapters, and is likewise composed in mixed verse and prose—the greater simplicity of arrangement, as well as some slight attention paid in it to See also:

• SURGERY
• SURGERY (Fr. chirurgie, from Gr. Xetpoupyfa, i.e. hand-work)

The late Professor E. Haas, in two very suggestive papers,9 tried to show that the work of Susruta (identified by him with See also:

• SOCRATES

(1867) ; but the subject has since then been treated in a much See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

The principal works of this period are hitherto known from quotations only, viz. the Gargi Samhita, which Professor Kern would fix at c. 5o n.c., the Naradi. Samhita and others. The new era, which the same scholar dates from c. A.D. 250, is marked by the appearance of the five original Siddhantas (partly extant in revised redactions and in quotations), the very names of two of which suggest Western influence, viz. the Paitamaha-, Surya-,13 Vasishtha-, Romaka- (i.e. Roman) and Pauliia-siddhantas. Based 9 Z.D.M.G. (1876), p. 617 seq.; (1877), p. 647 seq. 10 See Professor Aug.

Miiller's paper, Z.D.M.G. (188o), p. 465. u See especially Professor Whitney's essay on the Lunar Zodiac, in his See also:

• ORIENTAL

In the works of several of these writers, from Aryabhata on-wards, special attention is paid to mathematical (especially arithmetical and algebraic) computations; and the respective chapters of Bhaskara's compendium, viz. the Lilavati and Vija-ganita,' still form favourite text-books of these subjects. The question whether Aryabhata was acquainted with the researches of the Greek algebraist See also:

• DIOPHANTUS