THEISM . corrupted, though from a very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

" Homeric Theology " (a See also:

• BOOK

Most See also:

• SCHOOLS

Benn (See also:

• HISTORY

But the, teaching of the Bible is not systematic, and the authority of consciousness is vague; while the See also:

• CREEDS (Lat. credo, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

This, too, is no more than convenient phraseology. Before the Christian See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

Modern Christians are. tempted to See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

The Johannine See also:

• GOSPEL (O. Eng. godspel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. bona annuntiatio, or evangelium, Gr. evayyeXwv; cf. Goth. iu spillon, " to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce)

When we go outside the New Testament, this involuntary lack of grasp becomes even more marked. Neither the theory of infallible See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

But even Chiliasm —which itself has its subtler and its grosser modifications—is found in early Gentile as well as in early Jewish Christianity. (2) I See also:

• CORINTHIANS

(4) The enthusiastic view of the possibilities of the Christian See also:

• LIFE

17; i Cor. xv. 51, 52) until that See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

192 There are traces in the New Testament of a baptismal See also:

• CONFESSION (Lat. confessio, from confiteor, acknowledge, confess)

It is curious that the Syrian church of the 4th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

9: Phil. ii. 5–11) taught the personal pre-existence of Christ. A. M. See also:

• FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN (1838- )
• FAIRBAIRN, SIR WILLIAM

3, 4 can be taken as historical, we may feel certain that Jesus taught his pre-existence. If not, modern Christian minds will hardly regard the doctrine as more than a See also:

• SPECULATION

According to it, the man Jesus was exalted See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

The Catechetical school was primarily meant for instructing adult inquirers into Christianity. But it had attained the rank of a Christian university; and in this treatise Origen does not furnish See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

Origen called in a second new world—that of pre-existence. All souls were tried once, with equal See also:

• PRIVILEGE

The antagonism of the two schools governs much of the history of doctrine; and behind it we can trace in part the contrast between Church See also:

• PLATONISM

Yet it seems plain that he considered Sabellianizing reduction of the Divine Persons to phases or modes in the unity a lesser evil than regarding the Logos (with Arius) as a creature, however dignified. This was made plain by the leniency of Athanasius towards See also:

• MARCELLUS

and the so-called Athanasian creed, which states an Augustinian version of Greek See also:

• DOGMA (Gr. Sbypa, from b6aeiv, to seem; literally " that which seems, sc. good or true or useful " to any one)

This was the view which Cyril of Alexandria ascribed to See also:

• NESTORIUS (d. c. 451)

The See also:

• MARONITES (Arab. Mawarina)

Western Christendom wishes to call Christ God; even the Ritschlian school uses the wonted See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

On the contrary, he would hold that the scholarly tradition of Antioch more nearly reaches the real historical manhood of Jesus. But if it be presupposed that the purpose of Christ's See also:

• MISSION

Fact and theory sprang asunder; for theory had done its utmost, and was baffled. Another See also:

• ADMISSION

Fairbairn takes the rather unusual view that Greek Christian theology was the See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

The theory of See also:

• ASCETICISM

Augustine without much difficulty secured the answer " No." In the East (Council of Ephesus, 431) he was helped by the entanglement of Pelagianism with Nestorianism, just as in the West the ruin of Nestorian prospects was occasioned partly by dislike for the better known system of Pelagianism. In Augustine's own case, reaction against Pelagianism was not needed in order to make his position clear. He may have left a vulnerable frontier in his earlier dealings with the same thorny problem of free will. Certainly his polemic as a Christian against the See also:

• MANICHAEISM

It may be held by hostile critics that the whole thing is a delusion. More sympathetic judgments will divine unquenchable vitality in a faith whose very paradoxes rise up in new power again and again. Augustine's (erroneous) interpretation of the See also:

• MILLENNIUM (a pseudo-Latin word formed on the analogy of biennium, triennium, from Lat. milk, a thousand, and armies, year)

If so, See also:

• MYSTICISM (from Or. µuety, to shut the eyes; µuorrts, one initiated into the mysteries)

Modern theologians carry it back to much earlier views. 3 Until indeed, in modern times, Greek theology accepted the Western term and definition. 4 This, too, has been adopted in modern Greek theology. 6 Augustine already has this conception (Loofa). A hostile critic might say that the conception affirms the absolute See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

The schism was due to See also:

• RACE

His Sentences are selected almost (though not quite) exclusively from Augustine and Gregory the Great. See also:

• DIRECT

He is almost timidly cautious. He does not open up difficulties like Abelard, but smoothes them over. This suits the coming age. The great writers of the early centuries were to tell on men's minds not in the breadth of their treatment but in a theological See also:

• PEMMICAN

There was no genuine See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

They are as litigious as a lawsuit—without any summing up; the end comes in a moment with a See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

" There is no revision of the premises in debate from a higher or even from a detached and independent point of view. The premises from which he may select are fixed; many of the conclusions to be reached are also fixed. He speaks, most cleverly, to his brief, but he will not go outside it. He may argue as he likes so long as he respects the Church's decisions and reaches her conclusions. The systems of the leading schoolmen must rank above their commentaries upon the Lombard's Sentences, as the greatest of all systems of theology. Especially is that honour due to St Thomas Aquinas's larger Summa Theologiae. 2 We may Aquinas. well believe that he represents scholastic divinity at its best. He is not an Augustine, still less perhaps an Aristotle, but he is the Aristotle and the Augustine of his age, the normal thinker of the present and the lawgiver of the future. He teaches the medieval Platonic See also:

• REALISM (from Low Lat. realis, appertaining to res, things, as opposed to ideas and imaginations)

That is not the See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

Here, says Ritschl, the involuntary See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

Finally, we have the true central cause in the Pauline doctrine of faith. Evaded by Augustinianism, it came back now, with some at least of its difficulties and paradoxes, but also with its immense attractive and dynamic power. When the Reformers went beyond Augustine to Paul, Protestantism was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

To use technical language, Calvinism holds that sacraments are needful ex ratione praecepti, (merely) " because commanded. " In contrast with this, orthodox Lutheranism has to teach baptismal regeneration and consubstantiation, as well as See also:

• JUSTIFICATION

They knew well that the centre of gravity in their own belief lay elsewhere than in the elaborately detailed See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

Yet the very word reminds us of the legal piety which is characteristic of Western popular religion through all its history. We now find " merit " confined to Christ, and the usual application ruled out, somewhat as St Paul's intenser use of Pharisee conceptions destroyed instead of confirming the idea of righteousness by works. But it is by no means clear that this Protestant doctrine of Atonement is a unity. " Merit " is an intruder in that region of more strict and majestic law; yet Christ's " merit " is the only form under which the See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

Actual renewal is, of course, something beyond either of these. 780 it enjoins public reading of certain lessons from the Apocrypha and uses in See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

Supernatural sacraments of course drop out. The Lord's Supper is a simple memorial. Baptism were better disused, though Faustus will leave the matter to each Christian man's discretion. There is not in all Church history any statement of doctrine better knit together. Socinus's church is a school—a school of enlightenment. He was also—like Calvin, if on more narrowly common-sense lines—an admirable exegete. Harnack ranks his system with Tridentine and See also:

• POST

pope personally infallible (see INFALLIBILITY) and irreformable as often as he rules ex cathedra points of faith or morals. This once again seems to be the last word in a long development. Uncertainty as to the authorities determining religious belief—Scripture, tradition, Fathers, Doctors—is now, at least potentially, at an end; the pope can rule every point definitely, if he sees good to do so. The theory of Development (J. A-See also:

• MOHLER, JOHANN ADAM (1796—1838)

Gwatkin. May a reforming or innovating pope arise? He would find, in theory at least, that he possessed a weapon of matchless power and precision. But hitherto Roman Catholic theology has refused to conceive of any development except by enlargement of the Church's creed. Much may be added to formulated belief ; it is not admitted that any-thing has been or can be withdrawn. Brilliant Modernist scholars like A. See also:

• LOISY, ALFRED FIRIIIIN (1857– )

The Christological problem seems to require separate treatment. In regard to the Trinity, Protestantism has nothing very new to say, though " Sabellianism " is revived by See also:

• SWEDENBORG (or SWEDBERG), EMANUEL (1688-1772)

The Lutherans held that the Incarnate One possessed all divine attributes, but either willed to suspend their use—this is the Kenosis doctrine of the Lutheran school of Tiibingen in the 17th cent ary—or concealed their working; the latter was the doctrine of the See also:

• GIESSEN

Conduct is considered lawful if any good Church authority holds it to be defensible; and " probability " warrants the See also:

• CONFESSOR

Those who shrink from the old confident assertion, " Christ would not have become incarnate but for man's sin," might claim to say, from reverence and not from evasiveness, See also:

• IGNORAMUS (Latin for " we do not know," " we take no notice of ")

In Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

O. Dykes in Expository Times, See also:

• JAN

In the 18th century " See also:

• ILLUMINATION

The 18th century is very differently interpreted in different quarters. Orthodox evangelicalism is tempted to view it as an See also:

• APOSTASY (aaoafiavis, in classical Greek a defection or revolt from a military commander)

montane movement in the Church of Rome. The See also:

• FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW
• FORD, JOHN (r586–c.1640)
• FORD, RICHARD (1796-1858)
• FORD, THOMAS (b. c. 158o)

C. Haevernick; dogmatic in G. See also:

• THOMASIUS, CHRISTIAN (1655-1728)

Nitzsch and See also:

• JULIUS

While the See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

However biassed, this a priori study had its merits. It unified history with a mighty sweep, and revealed through all the ages one evolving process. But we have still to ask whether the doctrines it made prominent are really those which are vital to the Christian Church. And we have to look into Baur's esoteric interpretation of the doctrinal development. For him, as for Strauss, the unity of God and man is the central truth, of which Christ's atoning death is a sort of pictorial See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

K. See also:

• MARHEINEKE, PHILIP KONRAD (1780-1846)

The strength of all the idealists consists in their appeal to reason. Schleiermacher set himself to explain what is distinctive in religion. He distinguishes religion from philosophy as feeling in Schleler- contrast with thought; but when he has done that machete (Reden fiber See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Alex. Schweizer' maintained his general positions more nearly than any other. But there is no Schleiermacher school. W. Herrmann, from his own point of view, has quoted J. C. K. See also:

• HOFMANN, AUGUST WILHELM VON (1818-1892)
• HOFMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN KONRAD VON (1810—1877)
• HOFMANN, MELCHIOR (c. 1498—1543-4)

L. See also:

• MARTENSEN, HANS LASSEN (1808-1884)

A bolder and more See also:

• ORIGINAL

As they deny the natural religion of the 18th century—the religion which works its way into harmony with God by virtue—so, still more emphatically, they refuse to bid the sinner merit forgiveness. Thus they constitute one more revival of Paulinism or Augustinianism, though with qualifications. Their effort is to expound Christianity, not from the point of view of philosophy like the Hegelians, nor from that of an abstract conception of religion, tempered by regard for historical precedents, like Schleiermacher, but from its own, from the Christian point of view. Ritschl has. several dogmatic peculiarities, intenser in him than in his See also:

• FELLOW

Here then his strong desire for unity is cut across by his own See also:

• ACTION

Here English and American thought strikes in sympathetically, offering moral theories of Atonement, though not looking so exclusively towards forgiveness. See also:

• HORACE [QuINTus HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.)

assumed a tainted human nature and washed it clean, thus making `but inwardly sorrowful age. Any school of thought which it a promise and potency of the world's redemption. despises that hope has small right to call itself Christian. Casting a backward glance once more over the See also:

• EVOLUTION

If so, must He not redeem? For, if He merely may redeem but must punish, then His greatest deeds on our behalf See also:

• WEAR

Perhaps what concerns the Christian is rather the assured revelation that God is acting in character, like Himself, and yet acting wonderfully by methods which we could not predict but must adore. The free life of personal beings is no more to be mastered by a formula than it is to be assigned to caprice. A God who is love will act neither from wilfulness nor from what is called rational but might more correctly be called physical necessity. He will act in and from character. Always wise, always holy, always unsearchable, the Christian's God is that heavenly Father who has His full See also:

• IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

He published Four Books on the Study of Theo-logy (1556). Book iv. is said to be the first appearance of Practical Theology—Liturgics, Pastoral Theology, &c. In virtue of another work (De Formandis Concionibus,. 1553), Even if we accept the programme of reconstructing theology from a single point of view, we may desire to criticize not merely Ritschl's See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

Just as much of Christianity is to survive as science will spare. Often the theologians in question look to See also:

• PSYCHOLOGY
• PSYCHOLOGY (>Guxrl, the mind or soul, and X yos, theory)

Theology if it is to live must be henceforth at once more Christian and more scientific than it has ever yet been. A less threatening yet important possibility of modifica- tion arises out of the scientific study of the New Testament. Augustine, Luther, the evangelical revival, went back Theology to St Paul; can Christianity not dig deeper by going and New Testa- back to Jesus? A Protestant has to view the past ment history of doctrine very much as a succession of de-scholar- clensions and revivals, the latter more than counter- See also:

• SHIP

The scheme that includes most may be the successful scheme. Unity may be safeguarded in the confession of Christ, and theology indeed prove " Christocentric." t Above all, the social See also:

• MESSAGE (a word occurring in slightly different forms in several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span. mensaje, Ital. messagio; adapted from the Low Lat. missaticum, from mittere)

See also:

• CALIXTUS, GEORG (1586-1656)
• CALIXTUS, or CALLISTUS

K. Marheineke is named as the first writer (181o) on Symbolics, the comparative study of creeds and confessions of faith. In 1764 the See also:

• INTRODUCTORY

Theology loses its savour when studied in a spirit of merely scientific curiosity; and it does not concern the lay Christian. In spite of what may be deemed eccentric in this standpoint, Schleiermacher's summary is full of interest. He divides as follows:—I. Philosophical Theology: A. Apologetics; B. Polemics. II. Historical Theology : A. Exegetical—including the determination of the canon; B. Church History proper; C. The depicting of the present state of the Church; (I) its faith—Dogmatics; the belief of one branch of the Church; (2) its outward condition—See also:

• STATISTICS

Biblical " Dogmatics " also is said to be nearer this than it is to Dogmatics proper. III. Practical Theology: A. the service of the (See also:

• LOCAL

Again, the new study of the religions of the world is seeking its place in the curriculum of Christian theology, just as it is seeking —in some way—to modify Christian thought. The recognized -See also:

• LACE (corresponding to Ital. merletto, trina; Genoese Pizzo; Ger. spitzen; Fr. dentelle; Dutch kanten; Span. encaje; the English word owes something to the Fr. lassis or laces, but both are connected with the earlier Lat. laqueus; early French laces were

Sacraments and Last Things. Aquinas's Summa has no such clear lines of division. The Church carried forward from the middle ages a tradition of " Moral Theology "1 answering to Christian Ethics, alongside of Dogmatics or of all-inclusive Summae. See also:

• CASUISTRY (from the Lat. casus, a point of law)

The Protestant contributors, representing somewhat varied standpoints in German religion, follow much the same See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

In the West, Augustine is the chief See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

Roman Catholic learning has always taken a high place (the See also:

• BOLLANDISTS

See also:

• HOOKER, JOSEPH (1814–1879)
• HOOKER, RICHARD (1553-1600)
• HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON (1817— English botanist and traveller, second son of the famous botanist Sir W.J.Hooker, was born on the 3oth of June 1817, at Halesworth, Suffolk. He was educated at Glasgow University, and almost immediately after taking his M.
• HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON (1785–1865)
• HOOKER, THOMAS (1586–1647)

See also:

• HORT, FENTON JOHN ANTHONY (1828–1892)

See also:

• GOODWIN, JOHN (c. 1594–1665)
• GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL (1857– )
• GOODWIN, THOMAS (1600-168o)
• GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON (1831– )

Pope's Compendium is a somewhat more modern version. See also:

• JONATHAN
• JONATHAN (Heb. " Yah [weh] gives ")

Biblical material; iii. Positive construction—but much intermingled with history; good English See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

A. Dorner, had a powerful mind but an inferior See also:

• GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence)

Nitzsch, A. Harnack, as showing steady advance. Add Loofs himself and R. Seeberg. Works in English by W. G. T. Shedd, G. P. See also:

• FISHER
• FISHER, ALVAN (1792–1863)
• FISHER, GEORGE PARK (1827-1909)
• FISHER, JOHN (c. 1469-1535)
• FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER, 1ST BARON

Church formularies in See also:

• WINER, GEORG BENEDIKT (1789-1858)

A. See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

J. See also:

• DRUMMOND, HENRY (1786-r86o)
• DRUMMOND, HENRY (1851-1897)
• DRUMMOND, THOMAS (r797-1840)
• DRUMMOND, WILLIAM (1585-1649)

See also:

• HAGENBACH, KARL RUDOLF (1801-1874)