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CATECHISM (from Gr. Karnxeiv, teach b...

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Originally appearing in Volume V05, Page 507 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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CATECHISM (from Gr. Karnxeiv, See also:teach by word of mouth) , a compendium of instruction (particularly of religious instruction) arranged in the See also:form of questions and answers. The See also:custom of catechizing, See also:common to all civilized antiquity, was followed in the See also:schools of Judaism and in the See also:Early See also:Church, where it helped to preserve the See also:Gospel narrative (see See also:CATECHUMEN). The catechism as we know it is intended primarily for See also:children and uneducated persons. Its aim is to instruct, and 'it differs from a creed or See also:confession in not being in the first instance an See also:act of See also:worship or a public profession of belief. The first See also:regular catechisms seem to have grown out of the usual oral teaching505 of catechumens, and to have been compiled in the 8th and 9th centuries. Among them the See also:work of See also:Notker See also:Labeo and of Kero, both monks of St See also:Gall, and that of Ottfried of See also:Weissenburg in See also:Alsace deserve mention: But it is not until the first stirrings of revolt against the See also:hierarchy, which preceded the See also:Reformation, that they became at all widespread or numerous. The Waldenses of See also:Savoy and See also:France, the Brethren (small communities of evangelical dissenters from the See also:medieval faith) of See also:Germany, and the Unitas See also:Pratt-See also:urn of Bohemia all used the same catechism (one that was first printed in 1498, and which continued to be published till 1530) for the instruction of their children. It was based on St See also:Augustine's Enchiridion, and considers (a) Faith, i.e. the Creed, (b) See also:Hope, i.e. the See also:Lord's See also:Prayer, and (c) Love, i.e. the See also:Decalogue. The See also:age of the Reformation gave a See also:great stimulus to the See also:production of catechisms. This was but natural at a See also:time when the invention of See also:printing had thrown the See also:Bible open to all, and carried the See also:war of religious See also:opinion from the schools into the streets. The adherents of the "old" and the "new" religions alike had to ' justify their views to the unlearned as well as to the learned, and to give in See also:simple formulas their reasons for the faith that was in them.

Moreover, in the universal unrest and oversetting of all authority, See also:

Christianity itself was in danger of perishing, not only as the result of the cultured paganism of the See also:Renaissance, but also through the brutish See also:ignorance of the common folk, deprived now of their traditional religious restraints. To the urgency of this peril the reformers were fully alive; and they sought its remedy in See also:education. " Let the See also:people be taught," said See also:Luther, "let schools be opened for the poor, let the truth reach them in simple words in their own See also:mother See also:tongue, and they will believe." Catechisms of the See also:Chief Religious Communions.—(a) Evangelical (Lutheran and Reformed) .—It was the ignorance of the peasantry, as revealed by the horrors of the Peasants' War of 1524-'25, and his See also:pastoral visitation of the electorate of See also:Saxony 1525-1527, that See also:drew the above exclamation from Luther, and impelled him to produce his two famous catechisms (1529). In 1520 he had brought out a primer of See also:religion dealing briefly with the Decalogue, the Creed and the Lord's Prayer; and Justus See also:Jonas, Johannes See also:Agricola and other leaders had done something of the same See also:kind. Now all these efforts were superseded by Luther's Smaller Catechism meant for the people themselves and especially for children, and by his Larger Catechism intended for See also:clergy and schoolmasters. These See also:works, which did much to See also:mould the See also:character of the See also:German people, were set among the doctrinal See also:standards of the Lutheran Church and powerfully influenced other compilations. The Smaller Catechism, with the See also:Augsburg Confession, was made the See also:Rule of Faith in See also:Denmark in 1537• In this same See also:year (1337) See also:John See also:Calvin at See also:Geneva published his catechism for children. It was called Instruction and Confession of Faith for the Use of the Church of Geneva (a reprint edited by A. Rilliet and T. See also:Dufour was published in 1878), and explained the Decalogue, the Apostles' Creed, the Lord's Prayer and the Sacraments. Though it was meant, as he said, to give expression to a simple piety rather than to exhibit a profound knowledge of religious truth, it was the work of a See also:man who knew little of the See also:child mind, and, though it served as an admirable and transparent See also:epitome of his famous Institutes, it was too See also:long and too See also:minute for the instruction of children. Calvin came to see this, and in 1542, after his experience in See also:Strassburg, drafted a new one which was much more suitable for teaching purposes, though, judged by See also:modern standards, still far beyond the theological range of childhood.

It was used at the See also:

Sunday See also:noon instruction of children, on which Calvin laid much stress, and was adopted and similarly used by the Reformed Church of See also:Scotland. The Reformed churches of the See also:Palatinate, on the other See also:hand, used the See also:Heidelberg Catechism (1562-1563), "sweet-spirited, experiential, clear, moderate and happily-phrased," mainly the work of two of Calvin's younger disciples, Kaspar Olevianus and See also:Zacharias See also:Ursinus. The Heidelberg Catechism, set forth by See also:order of the elector, is perhaps the most widely accepted See also:symbol of the Calvinistic faith, and is noteworthy for its emphasis on the less controversial aspects of the Genevan See also:theology. As revised by the See also:synod of See also:Dort in 1619, this catechism became the See also:standard of most of the Reformed churches of central See also:Europe, and in time of the Dutch and German Reformed churches of See also:America. Other compilations were those of See also:Oecolampadius (See also:Basel, 1526), See also:Leo Juda (See also:Zurich, 1534), and See also:Bullinger (Zurich, 1555). In France, after Calvin's See also:day, the Reformed church used besides Calvin's See also:book the catechisms of See also:Louis See also:Capell (1619), and See also:Charles Drelincourt (1642), and at the See also:present time Bonnefon's Nouveau Catechisme elementaire (14th ed., 1900) seems most in favour. In Scotland both Calvin's Geneva Catechism and then the Heidelberg Catechism were translated by order of the See also:General See also:Assembly and annotated. In 1592 these were superseded by that of John See also:Craig, for a time the colleague of John See also:Knox at the High Church, See also:Edinburgh. Since 1648 the standard Presbyterian catechisms have been those compiled by the See also:Westminster Assembly, presented to See also:parliament in 1647, and then authorized by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland (See also:July 1648) and by the Scottish parliament (See also:January 1649). The Larger Catechism is " for such as have made some proficiency in the knowledge of the See also:Christian religion," but is too detailed and minute for memorizing, and has never received anything like the reception accorded to the Shorter Catechism, which is " for such as are of weaker capacity." The work was done by a See also:committee presided over first by See also:Herbert See also:Palmer, See also:master of Queens', See also:Cambridge, and then by See also:Anthony Tuckney, master of See also:Emmanuel. The scriptural See also:proof texts were added at the See also:request of the See also:English parliament. In his negotiations with the parliament in 1648 Charles I. offered to license the printing of the catechism, but, as the negotiations were broken off, this was not done.

The Shorter Catechism, after a brief introduction on the end, rule and essence of religion, is divided into two parts:—I. The doctrines we are to believe (1) concerning the nature of See also:

God, (2) concerning the decrees of God and their execution—(a) in creation and See also:providence, (b) in the See also:covenant of works, (c) in the covenant of See also:grace; II. The duties we are to perform (I) in regard to the moral See also:law, (2) in regard to the gospel—(a) inward duties, i.e. faith and repentance, (b) outward duties as to the Word, the sacraments and prayer. It has 107 questions and answers, while that of the See also:Anglican Church has but 24, grouping as it does the ten commandments and also the petitions of the Lord's Prayer, instead of dealing with them singly. Though the Shorter Catechism, closely associated as this has been from the first with Scottish public elementary education, has had very great See also:influence in forming and training the character of Presbyterians in Scotland, America and the See also:British colonies, it is, like most other catechisms See also:drawn up by dogmatic theologians, more admirable as an epitome of a particular See also:body of divinity than as an instruction for the See also:young and the unlearned. Its use is now generally preceded by something more adapted to the child-mind, and this is true also in other communions and in the See also:case of other catechisms. (b) See also:Roman See also:Catholic.—There was no universal catechism published by the Latin Church before the See also:council of See also:Trent, but several provincial See also:councils, e.g. in Germany and Scotland (where See also:Archbishop See also:Hamilton's catechism appeared in 1552 and was ordered to be read in church by the See also:parish See also:priest), moved in self-See also:defence along the lines already adopted by the reformers. The council of Trent in 1563 resolved on an authoritative work which was finally carried through by two small papal commissions, and issued in 1566 by See also:Pius V. (Eng. trans. by See also:Donovan, See also:Dublin, 1829). Being uncatechetical in form and addressed to the clergy rather than to the people, it missed its intention, and was superseded by others of less exalted origin, especially by those of the Jesuit See also:Peter Canisius, whose Summa Doctrinae et Institutionis Christianae (1554) and its shorter form (1556) were already in the See also:field. The catechisms of See also:Bellarmine (1603) and See also:Bossuet (1687) had considerable See also:vogue, and a See also:summary of the former known as Schema de Parvo was sanctioned by the Vatican council of 1870. But the Roman Catholic Church as a whole has never had any one See also:official catechism, each See also:bishop being allowed to See also:settle the See also:matter for his own See also:diocese.

In Englandthe Roman Catholic bishops have agreed on the use of what is known as "The See also:

Penny Catechism," which is very lucid and well constructed. (c) Orthodox Eastern Church.—Peter Mogilas, See also:metropolitan of See also:Kiev, drew up in 1643 the Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Eastern Church. This See also:bulwark against the encroachments of the See also:Jesuits and the Reformed Church was standardized by the synod of See also:Jerusalem in 1672. A smaller catechism was drawn up by order of Peter the Great in 1723. The catechisms of Levshin See also:Platon (1762) and V. D. See also:Philaret (1839), each in his day metropolitan of See also:Moscow, are bulky compilations which cannot be memorized, though there is a See also:short See also:introductory catechism prefaced to Philaret's See also:volume (Eng. trans. in See also:Blackmore's See also:Doctrine of the See also:Russian Church, 1845). These works are not to any extent in the hands of the people, but are used by the Russian clergy and schoolmasters as guides in giving instruction. The Coptic and Armenian churches also have what H. See also:Bonar describes as " See also:mere pretences at catechisms." (d) Anglican.—The catechism of the Church of See also:England is included in the Book of Common Prayer between the Orders for See also:Baptism and See also:Confirmation. It has two parts: (i.) the baptismal covenant, the Creed, the Decalogue and the Lord's Prayer, drawn up probably by See also:Cranmer' and See also:Ridley in the time of See also:Edward VI., and variously modified between then (1549) and 1661; (ii.) the meaning of the two sacraments, written on the See also:suggestion of See also:James I. at the See also:Hampton See also:Court See also:Conference in 1604 by John Overall, then See also:dean of St See also:Paul's, and afterwards bishop successively of See also:Coventry and See also:Lichfield and of See also:Norwich. This supplement to what had become known as the Shorter Catechism established its use as against the longer one, See also:King Edward Vlth's Catechisme,. which had been drawn up in 1553 by John Ponet or Poynet, bishop of See also:Winchester, and then revised and enlarged in 1570 by See also:Alexander See also:Nowell, Overall's predecessor as dean of St Paul's.

The Anglican catechism with occasional modification, especially in the sacramental See also:

section, is used not only in the Church of England but in the Episcopal churches of See also:Ireland, Scotland, the British dominions and the See also:United States of America. By the See also:rubric of the Prayer Book and by the 59th See also:canon of 1603 the clergy are enjoined to teach the catechism in church on Sundays and holidays after the second See also:lesson at Evening Prayer. This custom, long fallen into disuse, has largely been revived during See also:recent years, the children going to church for a See also:special afternoon service of which catechizing is the chief feature. Compared with the thoroughness of most other catechisms this one seems very scanty, but it has a better See also:chance of being memorized, and its very simplicity has given it a See also:firm hold on the inner See also:life and See also:conscience of devout members of the Anglican communion throughout the See also:world. (e) Other Communions.—Almost every section of the church, e.g. the Wesleyan Methodist, has its catechism or catechisms, but in addition to those already enumerated only a few need be mentioned. The Socinians embodied their tenets in the larger and smaller works drawn up by Fausto Sozzini and Schmalz, and published at Rakow in See also:Poland in 16o5;2 modern Unitarians have modern catechisms. The See also:Quakers or See also:Friends possess a kind of catechism said to have been written by See also:George See also:Fox in 1660, in which See also:father and son are respectively questioner and answerer, and an interesting work by See also:Robert See also:Barclay, in which texts of Scripture form the replies. Congregationalists for some time used See also:Isaac See also:Watts's Catechisms for Children and Youth (1730), since superseded by the manuals of J. H. See also:Stowell, J. H. Riddette and others.

In 1898 the See also:

National Council of the Evangelical See also:Free Churches in England and See also:Wales published ' Cranmer had published a See also:separate and larger catechism on the basis of the work of Justus Jonas in 1548; See also:note also See also:Allen's Catechisme, A Christen Instruction of the Principall Pointes of Christes Religion (1551). 2 A Latin edition in 1609 was dedicated to James I. of England. The British Houses of Parliament passed a See also:resolution ordering all copies of it to be publicly burned, and again in 1652 when another edition appeared. An English See also:translation, probably by John Bidle, was printed in See also:Amsterdam and widely circulated. an Evangelical Free Church Catechism, the work of a committee (convened by Rev. See also:Hugh See also:Price See also:Hughes) comprising Congregationalists, See also:Baptists, Methodists (Wesleyan, See also:Primitive and others), and Presbyterians, and thus representing directly or indirectly the beliefs of sixty or seventy millions of avowed Christians in all parts of the world, a striking example of inter-denominational unity. More remarkable still in some respects is The School Catechism, issued in 1907 by a conference of members of the Reformed churches in Scotland, which met on the invitation of the Church of Scotland. In its compilation representatives of the Episcopal Church in Scotland co-operated, and the book though " not designed to supersede the distinctive catechisms officially recognized by the several churches for the instruction of their own children," certainly " commends itself as suitable for use in schools where children of various churches are taught together." Catechisms have a strong See also:family likeness. In the See also:main they are expositions of the Creed, the Lord's Prayer and the Decalogue, and thus follow a tradition that has come down from the days when See also:Cyril of Jerusalem delivered his catechetical Lectures. Even when (as in the Shorter Westminster Catechism and the School Catechism) the Creed is simply printed as an appendix, or where (as in the Free Church Catechism) it is not mentioned at all, its substance is dealt with. The order in which these three main themes are treated is by no means See also:constant. The Heidelberg and Westminster Catechisms are of a more logical and See also:independent character.

The former is based on the See also:

Epistle to the See also:Romans, and deals with the religious life as (1) Repentance, (2) Faith, (3) Love. Under these heads it discusses respectively the See also:sin and misery of men, the redemption wrought by See also:Christ (here are included the Creed and the Sacraments), and the grateful service of the new life (the Decalogue). It may be noted that See also:Sir See also:Oliver See also:Lodge has adopted the catechetical form in his book, The Substance of Faith Allied with See also:Science (1907), which is described as " a catechism for parents and teachers." See Ehrenfeuchter, Geschichte See also:des Katechismus (1857); P. See also:Schaff, See also:History of the See also:Creeds of Christendom (3 vols., 1876–1877); See also:Mitchell, Catechisms of the Second Reformation (1887); C. Achelis, Lehrbuch der prakt. Theologie (2 vols., 1898) ; L. Pullan, History of the Book of Common Prayer, pp. 207-208 ; E. A. Knox, Pastors and Teachers (1902), chs. iii. and iv.; W. Beveridge, A Short History of the Westminster Assembly (1904), ch. x. (A.

J.

End of Article: CATECHISM (from Gr. Karnxeiv, teach by word of mouth)

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