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WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)
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See also:WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, See also:Cambria) , a Principality occupying the extreme See also:middle-See also:west of the See also:southern See also:part of the See also:island of See also:Great See also:Britain, bounded E. by the See also:English counties of See also:Cheshire, See also:Shropshire, See also:Herefordshire and See also:Monmouthshire; S. by the See also:Bristol Channel; W. by St See also:George's Channel; and N. by the Irish See also:Sea. (For See also:map see See also:ENGLAND, V.) Its See also:area is 7467 sq. m. Its greatest length from N. to S. (from the Point of See also:Air in See also:Flint to See also:Barry Island on the Glamorgan See also:coast) is 136 m., while its breadth varies from 92 M. (from St Davids See also:Head to the English border beyond See also:Crickhowell) to 37 M. (the distance between See also:Aberystwyth and the Shropshire boundary at Clun See also:Forest). Its See also:total See also:circuit is about 540 m., of which 390 consist of coast-See also:line. The See also:principal headlands are Great Ormes Head' in See also:Carnarvonshire; Braich-y-Pwll, the most See also:westerly point of Carnarvonshire; St Davids Head, the most westerly point of See also:South Wales; See also:Worms Head, the western extremity of See also:Gower; and Lavernock Point to the W. of See also:Cardiff. The principal islands are See also:Holy Island, off the W. coast of Anglesea; See also:Bardsey (Ynys Enlli), near Braich-y-Pwll; and the islands of See also:Ramsey, Grass-holm, Skomer, Skokholm and Caldy (Ynys Pyr) off the See also:Pembroke-See also:shire coast. The See also:chief inlets are the mouth of the See also:Dee, dividing Flint from Cheshire; the Menai Straits, separating Anglesea from the mainland; See also:Carnarvon See also:Bay; See also:Cardigan Bay, stretching from Braich-y-Pwll to St Davids Head; St Brides Bay; See also:Milford Haven; See also:Carmarthen Bay; and See also:Swansea Bay. In See also:common parlance, as well as for judicial purposes of circuits, the Principality is divided into See also:North Wales and South Wales, each of which consists of six counties. North Wales. Acreage. See also:Population (1901). Anglesea (Ynys F8n) . 176,630 50,606 Carnarvon (See also:Sir Arfon) . 361,156 126,883 See also:Denbigh (Sir Dinbych). 423,499 129,942 Flint (Sir Fflint) . 164,744 81,700 See also:Merioneth (Sir Feirionydd). 427,810 49,149 See also:Montgomery (Sir Drefaldwyn) 510,111 54,901 South Wales. Acreage. Population (1901). See also:Brecon or Brecknock (Sir See also:Fry- cheiniog) . 475,224 59,907 Cardigan (Sir Aberteifi) 440,630 60,240 Carmarthen (Sir Gaerfyrddin) 587,816 135,328 Glamorgan (Sir Forganwg) . . 518,863 859,931
Pembroke (Sir Benfro). 395,151 88,732
See also:Radnor (Sir Faesyfed) . 301, T64 23,281
Mountains.—Almost the whole See also:surface of Wales is mountainous or undulating. The most important See also: The See also:Usk (56 m.) flows through See also:Breconshire, and joins the Bristol Channel at See also:Newport in Monmouthshire. The Dee (70 m.) traverses Bala Lake, and drains parts of the counties of Merioneth, Denbigh and Flint. The Towy (68 m.) flows through See also:Carmarthenshire, entering Carmarthen Bay at Llanstephan; the Teifi (5o m.) rises near Tregaron and falls into Cardigan Bay below the See also:town of Cardigan. The Taff (40 m.), rising amongst the Brecon Beacons, enters the Bristol Channel at Cardiff. Other rivers are the Dovey (30 m.), falling into Cardigan Bay at See also:Aberdovey; the Taf (25 m.), entering Carmarthen Bay at Laugharne; and the broad navigable See also:Conway (24 m.), dividing the counties of Carnarvon and Denbigh.
Welsh See also:Place-Names.—The place-names throughout the Principality may be said to group themselves roughly into fourdivisions: (i.) Pure and unaltered See also:Celtic names; (ii.) Corrupted or abbreviated Celtic names; (iii.) English names; (iv.) Scandinavian and See also:foreign names. To the first See also:division belong the vast See also:majority of place-names throughout the whole of Wales and Monmouthshire. Except in some districts of the See also:Marches and in certain tracts lying along the South Wales coast, nearly all parishes, villages, hamlets, farms, houses, See also:woods, See also:fields, streams and valleys possess native appellations, which in most cases are descriptive of natural situation, e.g. Nantyffin, the boundary See also:brook; Aberporth, mouth of the See also:harbour; Talybont, end of the See also:bridge; Troedyrhiw, See also:foot of the hill; Dyffryn, a valley, &c. Other place-names imply a See also:personal connexion in addition to natural features, e.g. Nantygof, the blacksmith's brook; Trefecca, the See also:house of Rebecca; Llwyn Madoc, Madoc's See also: Tudno, Afan, Padarn, &c. To the second division—those place-names which have been corrupted by English usage—belong most of the older historic towns, in striking contrast with the rural villages and parishes, which in nearly all cases have retained unaltered their See also:original Celtic names. Anglicized in spelling and even to some extent changed in See also:sound are Carmarthen (Caerfyrddin); Pembroke (Penfro); See also:Kidwelly (Cydweli); Cardiff (Caerdydd); See also:Llandovery (Llanymddyfri); while See also:Lampeter, in Welsh Llanbedrpont-See also:Stephan, affords an example of a Celtic place-name both Anglicized and abbreviated. In not a few instances See also:modern English nomenclature has supplanted the old Welsh place-names in popular usage, although the town's original appellation is retained in Welsh literature and conversation, e.g. See also:Holyhead is Caergybi (fort of Cybi, a Celtic missionary of the 6th See also:century); See also:Presteign is Llanandras (church of St See also:Andrew, or Andras); St See also:Asaph is Llanelwy; the English name commemorating the reputed founder of the see, and the Welsh name recalling the church's original See also:foundation on the See also:banks of the Elwy. Cardigan, in Welsh' Aberteifi, from its situation near the mouth of the Teifi, and Brecon, in Welsh Aberhonddu, from its site near the confluence of the Usk and Honddu, are examples of corrupted Welsh names in common use—Ceredigion, Brychan—which possess in addition pure Celtic forms. In the third division, English place-names are tolerably frequent everywhere and pre-dominate in the Marches and on the South Wales coast. Even in so thoroughly Welsh a county as See also:Cardiganshire, English place-names are often to be encountered, e.g. New See also:Quay, High See also:Mead, Oakford, &c.; but many of such names are of modern invention, dating chiefly from the 18th and rgth centuries. Of the many English names occurring in south Pembroke and south Glamorgan, some are exact or fanciful See also:translations of the original Welsh, e.g. See also:Cowbridge (Pontyfon) and Ludchurch (Eglwys See also:Llwyd), others are of See also:direct See also:external origin, as Bishopstone, Flemingstone, See also:Butter Hill, Briton See also:Ferry, Manselfield, &c. Names derived straight from an Anglo-See also:Norman source are rare; Beaupre, See also:Beaumaris, See also:Beaufort, Fleur-de-Lis, See also:Roche, may be cited as examples of such. Scandinavian See also:influence can easily be traced at various points of the coast-line, but particularly in south See also:Pembrokeshire, wherein occur such place-names as Caldy, See also:Tenby, Goodwick, See also:Dale, Skokholm, Hakin and Milford Haven. Specimens of Latinized names in connexion with ecclesiastical foundations are preserved in Strata See also:Florida and See also:Valle Crucis Abbeys. Hybrid place-names are occasionally to be met with in the colonized portions of Wales, as in Gelliswick (a See also:combination of the Celtic gelli, a See also:hazel grove, and the Norse See also:wick, a haven), and in Fletherhill, where the English suffix hill is practically a See also:translation of the Celtic prefix. A striking peculiarity of the Principality is the prevalence of Scriptural place-names; a circumstance due undoubtedly to the popular religious movements of the 19th century. Not only are such names as See also:Horeb, See also:Zion, Penuel, Siloh, &c., bestowed on See also:Nonconformist chapels, used of the See also:guest-house of an See also:abbey—Yspytty Ystwyth, Tafarn Spite. Ystrad, a meadow or See also:rich See also:lowland—Ystrad Mynach, Llanfihangel Ystrad. Population.—The total population of the twelve counties of the Principality was: 1,360,513 (1881), 1,519,035 (1891), 1,720,600 (1901). These figures prove a steady upward tendency, but the increase itself is confined entirely to the See also:industrial districts of the Principality, and in a See also:special degree to Glamorgan-shire; while the agricultural counties, such as Pembroke, Merioneth, Cardigan or Montgomery, See also:present a continuous though slight decrease owing to See also:local See also:emigration to the centres of See also:industry. The whole population of Wales in Tudor, See also:Stuart and early Georgian times can scarcely have exceeded 500,000 souls, and was probably less. But with the systematic development of the vast See also:mineral resources of the South Wales coalfield, the population of See also:Glamorganshire has increased at a more rapid See also:rate than that of any other county of the See also:United See also:Kingdom, so that at present this county contains about See also:half the population of all Wales. It will be noted, therefore, that the vast See also:mass of the inhabitants of Wales are settled in the industrial area which covers the See also:northern districts of Glamorganshire and the south-eastern corner of Carmarthenshire; whilst central Wales, comprising the four counties of Cardigan, Radnor, Merioneth and Montgomery, forms the least populous portion of the Principality. The following towns had each in 1901 a population exceeding 10,000: Cardiff, Ystradyfodwg, Swansea, Merthyr Tydfil, See also:Aberdare, See also:Pontypridd, See also:Llanelly, Ogmore and Garw, Pembroke, See also:Caerphilly, Maesteg, See also:Wrexham, See also:Penarth, See also:Neath, See also:Festiniog, See also:Bangor, Holyhead, Carmarthen. Only four towns in North Wales are included in these eighteen, and the combined populations of these four—Wrexham (14,966), Festiniog (11,435), Bangor (11,269) and Holyhead (10,079)—fall far below that of Merthyr Tydfil (69,228), the See also:fourth largest town in Glamorgan- but these Biblical terms have likewise been applied to their surrounding houses, and in not a few instances to growing towns and villages. A notable example of this curious nomenclature occurs in See also:Bethesda, Carnarvonshire, where the name of the Congregational See also:chapel erected early in the 19th century has altogether supplanted the original Celtic place-name of Cilfoden. But although English and foreign place-names are fairly numerous throughout Wales, yet the vast majority remain Celtic either in a pure or in a corrupted See also:form, so that some knowledge of the Celtic See also:language is essential to interpret their meaning. A small glossary of some of the more common component words is appended below. Aber, the mouth or See also:estuary of a river—Aberystwyth, Abergwili. Ach, water—Clydach, Clarach. Afon, a river—a word which retains its See also:primitive meaning in Wales, whilst it has become a proper name in England—Glanafon; Manorafon. Bettws, a corrupt form of the English " See also:bead-house," or possibly of the Latin " See also:beatus "—Bettws-y-coed, Bettws Ifan. Blaen, the See also:top—Blaendyffryn, Blaencwm. Bod, house or See also:abode—Bodfuan, Hafod. See also:Bran, the human See also:breast, hence breast of hill—Brongest, Cilbronnau. Bryn, a hill—See also:Brynmawr, Penbryn. Bwlch, a See also:gap—Bwlchbychan, Tanybwlch.
Cae, a See also: Cwm, a See also:low valley, Anglicized Into " coomb "—Cwm Gwendraeth, Blaencwm.
Din, a fortified hill, hence Dines, a fortified town—Dinefawr, Pen Dinas.
Dal, a meadow—Dolwilym, Dolau.
Dwr, Dwfr, water—Glyndwrdu, the patrimony of the celebrated See also:Owen See also:Glendower, of which his Anglicized name is a corruption.
Eglwys, a corruption of the Latin See also:ecclesia," a church—Eglwyswrw, Tanyreglwys.
Gallt, in North Wales a steep slope; in South Wales a See also:hanging wood--Galltyfyrddin, Penyrallt.
Gelli, a grove—Gellideg, See also:Pengelly Forest.
Glen, a See also:bank—Glanym8r, Glandofan.
Glyn, a glen or narrow valley—Glyncothi, Tyglyn.
Llan, a sacred enclosure, hence a church—a most interesting and important Celtic prefix—Llandeilo, Llansaint.
Llech, a See also: Llys, a See also:court or See also:palace—Henllys, Llysowen. See also:Maes, open See also:land, or battlefield—Maesyfed (the Welsh name for Radnorshire), Maesllwch. Moel, bald, hence a See also:bare hill-top—Moelfre. Mor, the sea—Brynm8r, Glanym8r. Mynydd, See also:mountain—Llanfynydd, Mynydd Dfi. Nant, a See also:ravine, hence also a brook—Nantgwyllt, Nannau, Nantgaredig. Pant, a glen or hollow—Pantycelyn, Blaenpant. Parc, an enclosed field—Parc-y-Marw, Penparc. Pen, a See also:summit—Penmaenmawr, Penmark. See also:Pont, a bridge, a corruption of the Latin " pons"— Ponthirwen, Talybont. Porth, a See also:gate or harbour—perhaps a corrupt form of the Latin " porta "—Aberporth, See also:Pump Porth (" the Five See also:Gates "). Rhiw, ascent or slope—Troedyrhiw, Rhiwlas. Rhos, a See also:moor—Rhosllyn, See also:Tyr'hos. Rhyd, a See also:ford—Rhydyfuwch, Glanrhyd. Sarn, a See also:causeway, generally descriptive of the old See also:Roman paved roads—Talsarn, Sarnau, Sarn Badrig. Tal, an end, also head—Taliaris, Talyllyn. Tref, a See also:homestead, hence cant ref, a See also:hundred—Hendref, Cantref-ygwaelod. Troed, a See also:base —Troed-y-bryn. Ty, a house, a cottage—Tynewydd, Mynachty. Wy, or gwy, an obsolete Celtic word for water, preserved in the names of many Welsh rivers—Elwy, Gwili, Wye or Gwy. Ynys, an island, or hill in the midst of a See also:bog—Ynys Enlli (the Welsh name for Bardsey Islands), Ynyshir, Clynrynys. Yspytty, spite, a corrupt form of the Latin " See also:hospitium," oftenshire. See also:Industries.—The chief mineral product of the Principality is See also:coal, of which the output amounts to over 23,000,000 tons annually. The great South Wales coalfield, one of the largest in the kingdom, covers the greater part of Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire, the south-eastern corner of Carmarthenshire, and a small portion of south Pembrokeshire, and the quality of its coal is especially suitable for smelting purposes and for use in steamships. The See also:supply of See also:limestone and ironstone in Glamorganshire is said to be practically unlimited. About 400,000 tons of See also:pig See also:iron are produced yearly, and some of the largest iron-See also:works in the See also:world are situated at Merthyr Tydfil and Dowlais. See also:Copper, See also:tin and See also:lead works are everywhere numerous in the busy valleys of north Glamorgan and in the neighbourhoods of Swansea, Neath, Cardiff and Llanelly. In North Wales, Wrexham, See also:Ruabon and Chirk are centres of coal-See also:mining industry. There are valuable copper mines in Anglesea, and lead mines in Flint and in north Cardiganshire, which also yield a certain See also:deposit of See also:silver ore. See also:Gold has been discovered and worked, though only to a small extent, in Merionethshire and Carmarthenshire. See also:Slate quarries are very numerous throughout the Principality, the finest quality of slate being obtained in the neighbourhood of Bangor and Carnarvon, where the See also:Penrhyn and Bethesda quarries give employment to many thousands of workmen. By far the larger portion of Wales is purely agricultural in See also:character, and much of the valley land is particularly fertile, notably the Vale of Glamorgan, the Vale of Clwyd and the valleys of the Towy, the Teifi, the Usk and the Wye, which have long been celebrated for their rich pastures. The holdings throughout Wales are for the most part smaller in extent than the See also:average farms of England. Stock-raising is generally preferred to the growing of cereals, and in western Wales the See also:oat crops exceed in size those of See also:wheat and See also:barley. The extensive tracts of unenclosed and often unimprovable land, which still See also:cover a large area in the Principality, especially in the five counties of Cardigan, Radnor, Brecon, Montgomery and Merioneth, support numerous flocks of the small mountain See also:sheep, the flesh of which supplies the highly prized Welsh mutton. The See also:wool of the sheep is manufactured into See also:flannel at numberless factories in the various See also:country towns, and the supply meets an important local demand. The upland tracts also afford See also:good pasturage for a number of cobs and ponies, which obtain high prices at the local fairs, and Pembrokeshire and Cardiganshire have long been famous for their breed of horses and ponies. The See also:cattle of Wales present all varieties of See also:race, the See also:Hereford breed prevailing in the eastern counties, and Shorthorns and the black Castlemartins in the south-western parts. The great herds of goats, which in See also:medieval times subsisted on the Welsh hills, have entirely disappeared since the See also:general See also:adoption of the sheep-farming industry. The deep-sea See also:fisheries on the south-western coasts are of some importance; the Mumbles, Tenby .and Milford Haven being the chief centres of this industry. Lobsters and crabs are caught in Cardigan Bay, and oysters are found at various points of the Pembrokeshire coast. The large rivers produce See also:salmon, which are usually sent to the great towns for See also:sale. The Wye, the Usk, the Dee, the Dovey, the Teifi, the Towy and most of the Welsh rivers and lakes are frequented by anglers for salmon and See also:trout. Communications.—The two principal See also:railways serving the Principality are the See also:London & North-Western, which passes along the North Wales coast-line by way of Conway and Bangor, crosses the Menai Strait and has its See also:terminus at Holyhead; and the Great Western, which traverses South Wales by way of Cardiff, Landore, Llanelly and Carmarthen, and has its principal terminal station at See also:Fishguard Harbour. The lines of the See also:Cambrian railway serve North and Mid-Wales, and branches of the London & North-Western and the Midland penetrate into South Wales as far as Swansea. A See also:net-See also:work of lines connects the great industrial districts of Glamorganshire with the See also:main line of the Great Western railway. There are See also:steam-See also:ship services between Holyhead and See also:Dublin in connexion with the trains of the London & North-Western railway; and an important See also:traffic for See also:dairy produce, live-stock and passengers between See also:Fish-guard and Rosslare on the Irish coast was opened in 1906 in connexion with the Great Western railway. There is also a See also:boat service between Holyhead and See also:Greenore on the See also:Ulster coast. Steamboats likewise ply between Milford, Tenby, Swansea and Cardiff and Bristol; also between Swansea and Cardiff and Dublin; and there is a See also:regular service between Swansea and See also:Ilfracombe. The principal canals are the Swansea, the Neath, the Aberdare & Glamorgan, and the Brecon & See also:Abergavenny, all worked in connexion with the industrial districts of north Glamorganshire. See also:Government.—In all acts of See also:parliament Wales is invariably included under the See also:term of " England and Wales," and whenever an See also:act, or any See also:section of an act, is intended to apply to the Principality alone, then Wales is always coupled with See also:Monmouth-shire. The extinction of the Welsh Court of Great Sessions in 1830 served to remove the last relic of See also:separate See also:jurisdiction in Wales itself, but in 1881 special legislation was once more inaugurated by the Welsh See also:Sunday Closing Act (46 See also:Victoria), forbidding the sale of spirituous liquors by all See also:inn-keepers on Sundays to any but See also:bona fide travellers throughout Wales and Monmouthshire. A separate act on behalf of Welsh See also:education was likewise passed in 1889, when the Welsh Intermediate Education Act made special See also:provision for intermediate and technical education throughout the Principality and Monmouthshire. Except for the See also:administration of these two special acts, the system of government in Wales is identical in every respect with that of England (see ENGLAND and UNITED KINGDOM). Royal commissions dealing with questions See also:peculiar to Wales have been issued from See also:time to time, notably of recent years, in the Welsh Land See also:Tenure See also:Commission of 1893, and the Welsh Church Commission of 1906 (see See also:History). See also:Religion.—Ecclesiastically, the whole of Wales lies within the See also:province of See also:Canterbury. The four Welsh See also:sees, however, extend beyond the See also:borders of the twelve counties, for they include the whole of Monmouthshire and some portions of the English border shires; on the other See also:hand, the sees of Hereford ancf See also:Chester encroach upon the existing Welsh counties. The See also:diocese of St Davids (Tyddewi), the largest, See also:oldest and poorest of the four Cambrian sees, consists of the counties of Pembroke, Carmarthen and Cardigan, almost the whole of Brecon, the greater part of Radnor, and west Glamorgan with Swansea and Gower. The See also:cathedral church of St Davids is situated near the remote headland of St Davids in Pembrokeshire, but the episcopal See also:residence has been fixed ever since the See also:Reformation at Abergwili near Carmarthen, the most central spot in this vast diocese. The see of See also:Llandaff comprises Monmouthshire, all Glamorganshire as far west as the Tawe, and some parishes in Brecon and Hereford. The diocese of Bangor consists of the counties of Anglesea, Carnarvon and large portions of Merioneth and Montgomery. The diocese of St Asaph (Llanelwy) consists of the county of Denbigh, nearly the whole of Flint, with portions of Montgomery, Merioneth and Shropshire. Since the beginning of the 19th century dissent has been strongly represented in the Principality, the combined See also:numbers of the various Nonconformist bodies far outstripping the adherents of the Church. Universally accepted See also:statistics as to the various religious bodies it has been found impossible toobtain, but the See also:Report (1910) of the Welsh Church Commission stated that, exclusive of Roman Catholics, there were 743,361 communicants or fully admitted members of some See also:denomination, of whom 193,081 were Churchmen and 55o,28o Nonconformists. The gentry and landowners are all, broadly speaking, members of the established Church, but it is impossible to name any other class of society as belonging definitely either to " Church " or " Chapel." According to the above Report, the three most powerful dissenting bodies in Wales are the Congregationalists or See also:Independents, whose members number 175,147 throughout Wales and Monmouthshire; the Calvinistic Methodists—a direct offshoot of the Church since the See also:schism of 1811—with a membership of 170,617; and the See also:Baptists, 143,835. Wesleyan and Presbyterian chapels are likewise numerous, and the Unitarian or Socinian See also:body has long been powerful in the valley of the Teifi. Nearly every existing See also:sect is represented in Wales, including Swedenborgians and Moravians. The Roman See also:Catholic Church has many followers amongst the labouring population of Irish descent in the industrial districts. The diocese of Newport (known till 1896 as Newport and Menevia) consists of the counties of Monmouth, Glamorgan and Hereford; whilst the remaining eleven counties were in 1895 formed into the Vicariate of Wales, which in 1898 was erected into a diocese under a See also:bishop with the See also:title of Menevia. Since the See also:expulsion of the religious orders from See also:France in 1903 several communities of See also:French monks and nuns have taken up their abode in the Principality. History.—At the time of the Roman invasion of Britain, 55 B.C., four distinct dominant tribes, or families, are enumerated west of the Severn, viz. the Decangi, owning the island of Anglesea (Ynys F6n) and the Snowdonian See also:district; the Ordovices, inhabiting the modern counties of Denbigh, Flint and Montgomery; the Dimetae, in the counties of Cardigan, Carmarthen and Pembroke; and the See also:Silures, occupying the counties of Glamorgan, Brecknock, Radnor and Monmouth. It is interesting to See also:note that the existing four Welsh sees of Bangor, St Asaph, St Davids and Llandaff correspond in the main with the limits of these four tribal divisions. On the advance of Ostorius into western Britain, he met with considerable resistance from See also:Caractacus (Caradog), See also: It was during these disastrous Mercian See also:wars that there first appeared on the Welsh coasts the Norse and Danish pirates, who harried and burnt the small towns and flourishing monasteries on the shores of Cardigan Bay and the Bristol Channel. In the 9th century, however, the Welsh, attacked by land and sea, by Saxons and by Danes, at length obtained a prince capable of bringing the turbulent chieftains of his country into obedience, and of opposing the two sets of invaders of his See also:realm. This was Rhodri Mawr, or See also:Roderick the Great, a name always cherished in Cymric annals. Like See also:Alfred of Wessex, Rhodri also built a See also:fleet in order to protect Anglesea, " the See also:mother of Wales," so called on See also:account of its extensive See also:corn-fields which supplied barren Gwynedd with provisions. In 877 Rhodri, after many vicissitudes, was slain in battle, and his dominions of Gwynedd (North Wales), Deheubarth (South Wales) and Powys (Mid Wales) were divided amongst his three sons, Anarawd, Cadell and Mervyn. Consolidation of Cambro-See also:British territory was found impossible; there was no settled See also:capital; and the three princes fixed their courts respectively at Aberffraw in Anglesea, at Dynevor (Dinefawr) near See also:Llandilo in Deheubarth, and at Mathrafal is Powys. Howel, son of Cadell, commonly known as Howel Dda the Good, is ever celebrated in Welsh history as the framer, or rather the codifier, of the ancient See also:laws of his country, which were promulgated to the See also:people at his See also:hunting See also:lodge, Ty See also:Gwyn ar Taf, near the modern Whitland. In Howel's See also:code the prince of Gwynedd with his court at Aberffraw is recognized as the leading monarch in Wales; next to him ranks the prince of Deheubarth, and third in estimation is the prince of Powys. The laws of Howel Dda throw a See also:flood of interesting See also:light upon the ancient customs and ideas of early medieval Wales, but as their See also:standard of See also:justice is founded on a tribal aad not a territorial system of society, it is easy to understand the antipathy with which the See also:Normans subsequently came to regard this famous code. The dissensions of the turbulent princes of Gwynedd, Powys and Deheubarth, and of their no less quarrelsome chieftains, now See also:rent the country, which was continually also a See also:prey to Saxon incursions by land and to Scandinavian attacks by sea. Some degree of See also:peace was, however, given to the distracted country during the reign of See also:Llewelyn ap Seissyllt, the See also:husband of Angharad, heiress of Gwynedd, who at length secured the over-lordship or sovereignty of all Wales, and reigned till 1022. His son, See also:Griffith ap Llewelyn, who, after having been driven into See also:exile, recovered his See also:father's realm in the battle of Pencader, Carmarthenshire, in 1041, for many years waged a See also:war of varying success against Harold, See also:earl of Wessex, but in 1062 he was treacherously slain, and Harold placed Wales under the old king's half-See also:brothers, Bleddyn and Rhiwallon. With the See also:advent of the Normans, See also: The following year (1137) saw the deaths of the two powerful princes, Griffith ap Cynan, " the See also:sovereign and See also:protector and peacemaker of all Wales," and Griffith ap Rhys, " the light and the strength and the gentleness of the men of the south." With the accession of Henry II. peace was made with Owen of Gwynedd, the successor of Griffith ap Cynan, and with Rhys ap Griffith of South Wales. In 1169 Owen Gwynedd died and was buried in Bangor cathedral after a reign of 33 years, wherein he had successfully defended his own realm and had done much to bring about that See also:union of all Wales which his See also:grandson was destined to See also:complete. On the other hand, " The See also:Lord Rhys," as he is usually termed, did See also:homage to Henry II. at Pembroke in 1171, and was appointed the royal See also:justiciar of all South Wales. At the See also:castle of Cardigan in 1576, Prince Rhys held a historic bardic entertainment, or See also:eisteddfod, wherein the poets and harpists of Gwynedd and Deheubarth contended in amicable rivalry. This enlightened prince died in 1196, and as at his See also:death the house of Dynevor ceased to be of any further political importance, the overlordship of all Wales became vested indisputably in the house of Gwynedd, which from this point onwards may be considered as representing in itself alone the See also:independent principality of Wales. The prince of Gwynedd henceforth considered himself as a sovereign, independent, but owing a personal See also:allegiance to the king of England, and it was to obtain a recognition of his rights as such that Llewelyn ap lorwerth, " the Great," consistently strove under three English See also:kings, and th ough his resources were small, it seemed for a time as though he might be able by uniting his countrymen to place the recognized See also:autonomy of Gwynedd on a firm and enduring basis. By first connecting himself with See also: But in 1199 the celebrated Gerald de Barri (Giraldus Cambrensis), See also:archdeacon of Brecon and a member of the famous Norman baronial house of de Barri, and also through his grandmother Nesta a great-grandson of Prince Rhys ap Tudor of Deheubarth, was elected bishop by the See also:chapter of St Davids. This enthusiastic See also:priest at once began to re-assert the ancient metropolitan claims of the historic Welsh see, and between the years 1199–1203 paid three visits to Rome in order to obtain the support of See also:Pope See also:Innocent III. against John and Archbishop See also:Hubert, who firmly refused to recognize Gerald's See also:late See also:election. Innocent was inclined to temporize, whilst the Welsh chieftains, and especially Gwenwynwyn of Powys, loudly applauded Gerald's See also:action, but Liewelyn ap Iorwerth himself prudently held aloof from the controversy. Finally, in 1203, Gerald was compelled to make complete submission to the king and archbishop at See also:Westminster, and henceforth Canterbury remained in undisputed See also:possession of the Welsh sees, a circumstance that undoubtedly tended towards the later union of the two countries. In 1238 Liewelyn, growing aged and infirm, summoned all his vassals to a See also:conference at the famous Cistercian abbey of Strata Florida, whereat David, his son by the Princess Joan of England, was acknowledged his heir by all present. Two years later Llewelyn, the ablest and most successful of all the Welsh princes, expired and was buried in the monastery of his own foundation at Aberconway. He was succeeded by David II., at whose death without See also:children in 1246 the sovereignty of Gwynedd, and consequently of Wales, reverted to his three nephews, sons of his half-See also:brother Griffith, who had perished in 1244 whilst trying to See also:escape from the See also:Tower of London, where Henry III. was holding him as See also:hostage for the good behaviour of Prince David. Of Griffith's three sons, Owen, Llewelyn and David, the most popular and influential was undoubtedly Llewelyn, whose deeds and qualities were celebrated in extravagant terms by the bards of his own See also:day, and whose evil See also:fate has ever been a favourite theme of Welsh poets. Though to this, the last prince of Wales, political sagacity and a firm See also:desire for peace have often been ascribed, it must be admitted that he showed himself both turbulent and rash at a time when the most cautious See also:diplomacy on his part was essential for his country's existence. For See also:Edward, Henry III.'s son and heir, who had been created earl of Chester by his father and put in possession of all the royal claims in Wales, was generally credited with a strong determination to crush for ever Welsh independence, should a fitting opportunity to do so present itself. Nevertheless, the hostile policy of Llewelyn, who had closely associated himself with the cause of See also:Simon de See also:Montfort and the barons, was at first successful. For after the battle of See also:Evesham a treaty was concluded between the English king and the Welsh prince at Montgomery, whereby the latter was confirmed in his principality of Gwynedd and was permitted to receive the homage of all the Welsh barons, See also:save that of the head of the house of Dynevor, which the king reserved to himself; whilst the four fertile cantrefs of Perfeddwlad, lying between Gwynedd and the earldom of Chester, were granted tothe prince. Llewelyn was, however, foolish enough to lose the results of this very favourable treaty by intriguing with the de Montfort See also:family, and in 1273 he became betrothed to Eleanor de Montfort, the old Earl's only daughter, a piece of political folly which may possibly in some degree account for Edward's harsh treatment of the Welsh prince. In 1274 Liewelyn refused to attend at Edward's See also:coronation, although the Scottish king was present. In 1276 Edward entered Wales from Chester, and after a See also:Short See also:campaign brought his obstinate See also:vassal to submit to the ignominious treaty of Conway, whereby Liewelyn lost almost all the benefits conferred on him by the compact of Montgomery ten years before. Liewelyn, utterly humbled, now behaved with such prudence that Edward at last sanctioned his marriage with Eleanor de Montfort (although such an See also:alliance must originally have been highly distasteful to the English king), and the ceremony was performed with much pomp in See also:Worcester Cathedral in 1278. In 1281 discontent with the king and his system of justice had again become rife in Wales, and at this point the treacherous Prince David, who had hitherto supported the king against his own brother, was the first to proclaim a See also:national revolt. On See also:Palm Sunday 1282, in a time of peace, David suddenly attacked and burnt See also:Hawarden Castle, whereupon all Wales was up in arms. Edward, greatly angered and now See also:bent on putting an end for ever to the independence of the Principality, hastened into Wales; but whilst the king was campaigning in Gwynedd, Prince Llewelyn himself was slain in an obscure skirmish on the lrth of See also:December 1282 at Cefn-ybedd, near See also:Builth on the Wye, whither he had gone to rouse the people of Brycheiniog. Llewelyn's head was brought to Edward at Conway Castle, who ordered it to be exhibited in the capital, surrounded by a See also:wreath of See also:ivy, in mocking allusion to an ancient Cymric prophecy concerning a Welsh prince being crowned in London. His body is said, on doubtful authority, to have been buried honourably by the monks of Abbey - Cwm Hir, near See also:Rhayader. Llewelyn's brother, now David III., designated by the English " the last survivor of that race of traitors," for a few months defied the English forces amongst the fastnesses of Snowdon, but ere long he was captured, tried as a disloyal English See also:baron by a parliament at Shrewsbury, and finally executed under circumstances of great barbarity on the 3rd of See also:October 1283. With David's See also:capture practically all serious Welsh resistance to the English arms ceased,. if we except the unsuccessful See also:attempt made to rouse the crushed nation in 1293 by Llewelyn's natural son, Madoc, who ended his days as a prisoner in the Tower of London. Having suppressed the independence of Wales, Edward now took steps to keep Gwynedd itself in permanent subjection by See also:building the castles of Conway, Carnarvon, See also:Criccieth and See also:Harlech within the ancient patrimony of the princes of North Wales, whose legitimate race was now See also:extinct save for Llewelyn's daughter G wenllian, who had entered the See also:convent of Sempringham. In See also:April 1284 See also:Queen Eleanor, who had meanwhile joined her husband in Wales, gave See also:birth to a son in the newly built castle of Carnarvon, and this See also:infant the victorious king, half in See also:earnest and half in jest, presented to the Welsh people for a prince who could speak no word of English. On the 7th of See also:February 1301, Edward of Carnarvon was formally created " prince of Wales " by his father, and henceforward the title and honours of Prince of Wales became associated with the recognized heir of the English See also:crown. By the See also:Statute, or rather See also:Ordinance of Rhuddlan, promulgated in 1284, many important changes were effected in the See also:civil administration of Wales. Glamorgan and the county palatine of Pembroke had hitherto been the only portions of the country subject to English shire See also:law, but now Edward parcelled out the ancient territory of the princes of Gwynedd and of Deheubarth into six new counties, with sheriffs, coroners and bailiffs. Thus Anglesea, Carnarvon, Merioneth and Flint were erected in North Wales; whilst out of the districts of Ystrad Tywi and Ceredigion in South Wales, the old dominions of the house of Dynevor, the counties of Carmarthen and Cardigan were formed. The old Welsh land tenure by See also:gavelkind was, however, still permitted to remain in force amongst the natives of all Wales, whilst it was henceforth arranged to administer justice in the eight counties by special royal See also:judges, and in the Marches by the See also:officers appointed by the various lords-marchers according to the terms of their tenure. Another distinguishing See also:mark of Edward's policy towards Wales is to be found in the commercial and administrative powers given to the fortified towns, inhabited solely by people of English birth and by Welshmen who acquiesced in English rule. Municipal charters and See also:market privileges were no W granted to such towns as Cardiff, Carrnarthen, Builth, Cardigan, Montgomery, Aberystwith, Newborough, &c., and this See also:wise policy was continued under Edward II. and Edward III. Many of the turbulent Welsh warriors having now become mercenaries on the See also:continent or else enlisted under the English king, and the whole of the land west of Severn at last enjoying See also:internal peace, the commercial resources of Wales were See also:developed in a manner that had hitherto not been possible. Coal, copper, See also:timber, iron, and especially wool, were exported from the Principality, and by the Statute See also:Staple of 1353 Carmarthen was declared the See also:sole staple for the whole Welsh wool See also:trade, every See also:bale of wool having first to be sealed or " cocketed " at this important town, which during the 14th century may almost be accounted as the English capital of the Principality, so greatly was it favoured by the See also:Plantagenet monarchs. A natural result of this partial treatment of the towns by the king and his vassals was that the English See also:tongue and also English customs became prevalent if not universal in all the towns of Wales, whilst the rural districts remained strongly Cymric in character, language and sympathy. After more than a century of enforced repose in the land and of prosperity in the towns, all Wales was suddenly convulsed by a wide-spread revolt against the English crown, which reads more like a See also:tale of See also:romance than a piece of sane history. The deposition of See also:Richard II. and the usurpation of Henry IV., combined with the See also:jealousy of the rural inhabitants of Wales against the privileged dwellers of the towns, seem to have rendered the country ripe for See also:rebellion. Upon this troubled See also:scene now appeared Owen Glendower (Owain Glyndwfrdwy: died ? 1415), a descendant of the former princes of Powys and a favourite courtier of the late King Richard, smarting under the effect of personal wrongs received from Henry of See also:Lancaster. With a success and See also:speed that contemporary writers deemed miraculous, Owen stirred up his countrymen against the king, and by their aid succeeded in destroying castle after castle, and burning town after town throughout the whole length and breadth of the land between the years 1401 and 1406. In 1402 he routed the forces of the Mortimers at Bryn See also:Glas near Knighton in Maesyfed, where he captured Sir See also:Edmund See also:Mortimer, the See also:uncle and See also:guardian of the legitimate heir to the English throne, the See also:young earl of See also: Through the instrumentality of the celebrated Sir Rhys ap See also: For this purpose four circuits, two for North and two for South Wales, each circuit containing a convenient group of three counties, were created; whilst justices of the peace and custodes rotulorum for each shire were likewise appointed. At the same time all ancient Welsh laws and customs, which were at variance with the recognized law of England, were now declared illegal, and Cymric land tenure by gavelkind, which had been respected by Edward I., was expressly abolished and its place taken by the See also:ordinary practice of See also:primogeniture. It was also particularly stated that all legal See also:procedure must henceforth be conducted in the English tongue, an arrangement which fell very heavily on
ungracious enactment when coming from a sovereign who was himself a genuine Welshman by birth. Under the system of the Great Sessions justice was administered throughout the twelve counties of Wales for nearly three hundred years, and it was not until 1330 that this system of jurisdiction was abolished (not without some protest from Welsh members at Westminster), and the existing North and South Wales circuits were brought into being.
With the peaceful absorption of the Principality into the realm of the Tudor sovereigns, the subsequent course of Welsh history assumes mainly a religious and educational character. The influence of the See also:Renaissance seems to have been tardy in penetrating into Wales itself, nor did the numerous ecclesiastical changes during the period of the Reformation cause any marked signs either of resentment or approval amongst the mass of the Welsh people, although some of the ancient Catholic customs lingered on obstinately. As early as the reign of Henry VIII. there were, however, to be found at court and in the See also:universities a number of ardent and talented young Welshmen, adherents mostly of the reforming party in Church and See also:State, who were destined to bring about a brilliant See also:literary revival in their native land during the reigns of See also: Of the five prelates thus named, Davies alone was competent to undertake the task, and for assistance in the work of translation he called upon his old friend and former See also:neighbour, William Salesbury, who like the bishop was an excellent See also:Greek and See also:Hebrew scholar. The pair laboured with such See also:diligence that before the close of the year 1567 the required translations of the See also:Liturgy and the New Testament were published in London; the former being the exclusive work of the bishop, whilst the latter was principally the product of Salesbury's pen, although some portions of it were contributed by Bishop Davies and by Thomas See also:Huet, or See also:Hewett, See also:precentor of St Davids (d. 1591). Having accomplished so much in so small a space of time, the two See also:friends were next engaged upon a translation of the Old Testament, but owing to a See also:quarrel, the cause of which remains obscure, this interesting literary See also:partnership was brought to an abrupt ending about 1590. The honour of presenting his countrymen with a complete Welsh version of the See also:Bible was reserved for William See also:Morgan (c. 1547-1604), See also:vicar of Llanrhayader, in Denbighshire, and afterwards bishop successively of Llandaff and of St Asaph. For eight years Morgan was busied with his self-imposed task, being greatly encouraged thereto by Archbishop See also:Whitgift, by Bishop William See also:Hughes (d. 1600) of St Asaph, and by other leading dignitaries of the Church both in England and in Wales. In December 1588 the first complete Welsh Bible, commonly known as " Bishop Morgan's Bible," was issued from the royal See also:press at Westminster under the See also:patron-See also:age of queen and See also:primate, about 800 copies being supplied for See also:distribution amongst the See also:parish churches of Wales. This famous editio princeps of the Welsh Bible, first and foremost of Welsh See also:classics, was further supplemented under James I. by the Authorized Version, produced by Richard See also:Parry (1560-1623), bishop of St Asaph, with the help of Dr John Davies of Mallwyd (1570-.1644), the first great Welsh lexicographer. At the ter-See also:centenary of "Bishop Morgan's Bible" in 1888 a national See also:movement of appreciation was set on foot amongst Welshmen of all denominations both at See also:home and abroad, with the result thata memorial See also:cross was erected in the cathedral close of St Asaph in order to perpetuate the names and national services of the eight leading Welsh translators of the Scriptures:—Bishops Davies, Morgan and Parry; William Salesbury; Thomas Huet; Dr Davies of Mallwyd; Archdeacon Edmund Prys (1541-1624), author of a popular Welsh metrical version of the Psalter; and See also:Gabriel See also:Goodman, See also:dean of Westminster (1528-1601), a native of See also:Ruthin, who greatly assisted Bishop Morgan in'his task. Two circumstances attending the See also:production of these Welsh translations should be noted: (1) That the leaders of this remarkable religious, literary and educational revival within the Principality were chiefly natives of North Wales, where for many years St Asaph was regarded as the chief centre of Cambro-British intellectual See also:life; and (2) that all these important works in the Welsh tongue were published of See also:necessity in London, owing to the See also:absence of an acknowledged capital, or any central See also:city of importance in Wales itself. It would be well-nigh impossible to exaggerate the services rendered to the ancient British tongue, and consequently to the national spirit of Wales, by these Elizabethan and Jacobean translations, issued in 1567, 1588 and 1620, which were able definitely to See also:fix the standard of classical Welsh, and to embody the contending dialects of Gwynedd, Dyfed and Gwent for all time in one literary storehouse. But for this sudden revival of Cymric literature under the patronage of Elizabeth (for the obtaining of which Wales must ever owe a deep See also:debt of gratitude to Bishop Richard Davies, " her second St David "), there is every See also:reason to believe that the ancient language of the Principality must either have drifted into a number of corrupt dialects, as it then showed symptoms of doing, or else have tended to ultimate extinction, much as the Cornish tongue perished in the 17th century.
The growth of See also:Puritanism in Wales was neither strong nor speedy, although the year 1588, which witnessed the See also:appearance of Bishop Morgan's Bible, also gave birth to two fierce appeals to the parliament, urging a drastic Puritanical policy in Wales, from the pen of the celebrated John See also:Penry, a native of Brecknockshire (1559-1593)• Far more influential than Penry amongst the Welsh were Rhys See also:Prichard (? 1579-1644), the famous vicar of Llandovery,' Carmarthenshire, and William Wroth (d. 1642), See also:rector of Llanfaches, Monmouthshire. Of these two Puritan divines, Vicar Prichard, who was essentially orthodox in his behaviour, forms an interesting connecting See also:link between the learned Elizabethan translators of the Bible and the great revivalists of the 18th century, and his moral rhymes in the See also:vernacular, collected and printed after his death under the title of The Welshman's See also:Candle (Canwyll y Cymry), still retain some degree of popularity amongst his countrymen. Although a strong opponent of See also:Laud's and Charles's ecclesiastical policy, Prichard lived unmolested, and even rose to be See also:chancellor of St Davids; but the indiscreet Wroth, " the founder and father of See also:nonconformity in Wales," being suspended in 1638 by Bishop See also: To assist these commissioners in their task of inquiry and See also:ejectment, a body of twenty-five " Approvers " was likewise constituted, with the object of selecting itinerant preachers to replace the dismissed incumbents; and amongst the Approvers are conspicuous the names of See also:Walter See also:Cradock (d. 1659), a suspended See also:curate of St See also:Mary's, Cardiff, and a follower of Wroth's; and of Vavasor See also:Powell (1617-167o), an honest but injudicious zealot. Some 330 out of a possible total of 520 incumbents were now ejected in South Wales and Monmouthshire, and there is every reason to suppose that the beneficed clergy of North Wales suffered equally under the new system. The greed and tyranny of several of the commissioners, and the bigotry and mismanagement of well-meaning fanatics such as Cradock and Powell, soon wrought dire confusion throughout the whole Principality, so that a See also:monster See also:petition, signed alike by moderate Puritans and by High Churchmen, was prepared for presentation to parliament in 1652 by See also:Colonel Edward See also:Freeman, See also:attorney-general for South Wales. Despite the fierce efforts of Vavasor Powell and his brother itinerant preachers to thwart the reception of this South Wales petition at Westminster, Colonel Freeman was able to urge the claims of the petitioners, or " See also:Anti-Propagators " as they were termed, at the See also:bar of the House of See also:Commons, openly declaring that by the late policy of ejectment and destruction " the light of the Gospel was almost extinguished in Wales." A new commission was now appointed to inquire into alleged abuses in Wales, and the existing See also:evidence clearly shows how harsh and unfair was the treatment meted out to the clergy under the act of 1649, and also how utterly subversive of all ancient See also:custom and established order were the reforms suggested by the commissioners and approvers. At the Restoration all the ejected clergy who survived were reinstated in their old benefices under the Act of Uniformity of 1662, whilst certain Puritan incumbents were in their turn dismissed for refusing to comply with various requirements of that act. Amongst these Stephen Hughes of Carmarthen (1623-1688), a devoted follower of Vicar Prichard and an editor of his works, was ejected from the living of Mydrim in Carmarthenshire, whereby the valuable services of this eminent divine were lost to the Church and gained by the Nonconformists, who had increased considerably in numbers since the Civil Wars. The old ecclesiastical policy of Elizabeth, which had hitherto See also:borne such good See also:fruit in Wales, was now gradually relaxed under the later Stuarts and definitely abandoned under See also:Anne, during whose reign only Englishmen were appointed to the vacant Welsh sees. From 1702 to 1870, a period of nearly 170 years, no Welsh-speaking native bishop was nominated (with the solitary exception of John Wynne, consecrated to St Asaph in 1715), and it is needless to point out that this selfish and unjust policy was largely responsible for the neglect and See also:misrule which distinguished the latter half of the 18th and the early part of the 19th centuries. The Church, which had so long played a prominent and valuable part in the moral and literary education of the Welsh people, was now gradually forced out of See also:touch with the nation through the action of See also:alien and unsympathetic Whig prelates in Wales itself, which still remained mainly High Church and Jacobite in feeling. All writers agree in stating that the mass of the Welsh people at the close of the 17th century were illiterate, and many divines of Cymric See also:nationality See also:charge their countrymen also with immorality and religious apathy. English was little spoken or understood amongst the See also:peasant population, and there was a great dearth of Welsh educational works. Some efforts to remedy this dark See also:condition of things had already been made by Thomas See also:Gouge, with the assistance of Stephen Hughes, and also by the newly founded " Society for the Promotion of See also:Christian Know-ledge "; but it was Griffith See also: During the lifetime of Griffith Jones the course of Welsh See also:Methodism had run in orthodox channels and had been generally supported by the Welsh clergy and gentry; but after his death the tendency to exceed the See also:bounds of conventional Church discipline grew so marked as to excite the alarm of the English bishops in Wales. Nevertheless, the bulk of the Methodists continued to attend the services of the Church, and to receive the sacraments from regularly ordained parish priests, although a schism was becoming inevitable. Towards the close of the 18th century the Methodist revival spread to North Wales under the influence of the celebrated Thomas Charles, commonly called Charles of Bala (1755-1814), formerly curate of Llanymowddwy and the founder of Welsh Sunday schools. So strained had the relations between the English rulers of the Church and the Methodists themselves now grown, that in 1811 the long-expected schism took place, much to the regret of Charles of Bala himself, who had ever been a devoted See also:disciple of Griffith Jones.. The great bulk of the farming and labouring members of the Church now definitely abandoned their " Ancient Mother," to whom, however, the Welsh gentry still adhered. The Great Schism of 1811 marks in fact the lowest point to which the fortunes of the once powerful and popular Church in Wales had sunk;—in 1811 there were only English-speaking prelates to be found, whilst the abuses of non-residence, pluralities and even nepotism were rampant everywhere. As instances of this clerical corruption then prevailing in Wales, mention may be made of the cases of Richard See also:Watson (d. 1816), the non-See also:resident bishop of Llandaff, who rarely visited his diocese during an episcopate of See also:thirty years; and of another English divine who held the deanery, the chancellorship and nine livings in a North Welsh see, his curates-in-charge being paid out of Queen Anne's See also:Bounty, a fund expressly intended for the benefit of impoverished livings. An See also:honourable exception to the indolent and rapacious divines of this See also:stamp was Thomas See also:Burgess (bishop of St Davids), to whose exertions is mainly due the foundation of St David's College at Lampeter in 1822, an institution erected to provide a better and cheaper education for intending Welsh clergymen. The foundation of Lampeter College was one of the earliest signs of a new era of revived vigour and better government within the Church, although it was not till 187o that, by Mr See also:Gladstone's appointment of Dr See also:Joshua Hughes to the see of St Asaph, the special claims of the Welsh Church were officially recognized, and the old Elizabethan policy was one more reverted to after a See also:lapse of nearly two hundred years. After 1870 Welsh ecclesiastical appointments were made in a more truly national spirit, and this official acknowledgment of the peculiar duties and claims of the Church in Wales largely helped to win back no small amount of the strength and popularity that had been lost during Georgian times. With the old national Church enthralled by English political prelates, and consequently hindered from ministering to the special needs of the people, the progress of dissent throughout the Principality was naturally rapid. Although See also:primary education was largely supplied by the many Church schools in all parts of Wales, yet it was in the three most important denominations—the Congregationalists, the Baptists and the Calvinistic Methodists (that new-See also:born sect of which the Church herself was the unwilling See also:parent)—that almost all Welsh spiritual development was to be found during the first half of the 19th century. Thus between the year 1811 (the date of the Methodist See also:secession) and 1832 (the year of the great Reform See also:Bill), the number of dissenting chapels had risen from 945 to 1428: a truly marvellous increase even allowing for the speedy growth of population, since every chapel so built had of necessity to be well attended in order to render it self-supporting. From this religious guidance of the people by the well-organized forces of dissent, it was but a step to political ascendancy, and as the various constitutional changes from the Reform Bill onward began to See also:lower the elective See also:franchise, and thus to throw more and more power into the hands of the working classes, that spirit of radicalism, which is peculiarly associated with political dissent, began to assert itself powerfully throughout the country. As early as the reign of William IV, there appeared the weekly Times of Wales (Amserau Cymry), founded and edited by the able William See also:Rees, who may be styled the father of the Welsh political press; and the success of Rees's venture was so marked that other See also:journals, arranged to suit the special tenets of each sect, speedily sprang into existence. In the year 1870--a date that for many reasons marks the opening of an important era in modern Welsh history—the dissenting bodies of Wales were supporting two quarterly, sixteen monthly and ten weekly papers, all published in the vernacular and all read largely by peasants, colliers and artisans. With so powerful a press behind it, it is no wonder that Welsh political dissent was largely responsible for the changed attitude of the Imperial government in its treatment of the Principality—as evinced in the Sunday Closing Act of 1881, a measure which was very dear to the strong See also:temperance party in Wales, and in the Welsh Intermediate Education Act, granted by Lord See also:Salisbury's government in 1889. It was certainly owing to the pressure of Welsh political dissent that Lord See also:Rosebery's See also:cabinet issued the Welsh Land Tenure Commission in 1893—an inquiry which did much to exonerate the Welsh squirearchy from a number of vaguecharges of See also:extortion and sectarian oppression; and that Sir H. See also: In 1889 the system of intermediate schools, arranged to form an educational link between the primary schools and the colleges, was inaugurated. In See also:November 1893 the University of Wales was incorporated by royal See also:charter, with Lord Aberdare (d. 1895) as its first chancellor. All the religious bodies, including the Church, have been extremely active in educational and See also:pastoral work; whilst the peculiar religious movement known as a revival (Diwygiad) has occurred from time to time throughout the Principality, notably in the years 1859 and 1904. But the most remarkable phenomenon in modern Wales has been the evident growth of a strong national sentiment, the See also:evolution of a new Welsh Renaissance, which demanded special recognition of the Principality's claims by the Imperial parliament. This revived spirit of nationalism was by outsiders some-times associated, quite erroneously, with the aims and actions of the Welsh See also:parliamentary party, the spokesmen of political dissent in Wales; yet in reality this sentiment was shared equally by the clergy of the Established Church, and by a large number of the laity within its See also:fold. Nor is the question of the vernacular itself of necessity See also:bound up with this new movement, for Wales is essentially a bi-lingual country, wherein every educated Cymro speaks and writes English with ease, and where also large towns and whole districts—such as Cardiff, south Monmouth, the Vale of GIamorgan, Gower, south Glamorgan, south Pembroke, See also:east Flint, Radnorshire and Breconshire—remain practically monoglot English-speaking. Nor are the Welsh landowners and gentry devoid of this new spirit of nationalism, and although some generations ago they ceased as a body to speak the native tongue, they have shown a strong disposition to study once more the ancient language and literature of their country. It is true that a Young Wales party has arisen, which seeks to narrow this movement to the exclusion of English ideas and influences; and it is also true that there is a party which is abnormally suspicious of and hostile to this Welsh Renaissance; but in the main it is correct to say that the bulk of the Welsh nation remains content to assert its views and requirements in a reasonable manner. How wide-spread and enthusiastic is this true spirit of national-ism amongst all classes and sects of Welsh society to-day may be observed at the great meetings of the National Eisteddfod, which is held on alternate years in North and South Wales at some important centre, and at which the immense crowds collected and the See also:interest displayed make a deep impression on the Anglo-Saxon or foreign visitors. The sincere, if somewhat narrow-minded religious feelings; the devotion manifested by all classes towards the land of their fathers; the extraordinary vitality of the Cambro-British tongue—these are the main characteristics of modern Wales, and they seem to verify the terms of Taliesin's ancient prophecy concerning the early dwellers of Gwalia: " Their Lord they shall praise; Their Tongue they shall keep; Their Land they shall lose Except See also:Wild Wales." (H. M. V.) Welsh Literature.—The Welsh language possesses an extensive literature, ranging from the 9th century to the present day. A detailed account of it will be found in the See also:article See also:CELT: Celtic Literature, § iv. Welsh Language.—Welsh, the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Britons (see CELT: Language), is the domestic tongue of the majority of the inhabitants of the Principality. With the final destruction of Welsh independence under Edward I. the Cambro-British language, in spite of the disappearance of a court, continued to be spoken by Welshmen of all classes residing west of Severn, and the 14th and 15th centuries are remarkable for producing some of the finest Welsh bards and historians. With the union of Wales with England by the Act of 27 Henry VIII. (1536) the subsequent administration of all law and justice in the English tongue throughout the Principality threatened for a time the ancient language of the people with practical extincttion. From such a fate it was largely preserved by the various translations of the Scriptures, undertaken at the command of Queen Elizabeth and performed by a number of native scholars and divines, amongst whom appear prominent the names of Bishops Davies, Morgan and Parry, and of William Salesbury of Llanrwst. Although the assertion of the celebrated Rhys Prichard of Llandovery that in his time (c. 163o) only 1% of the people of Wales could read the native language is probably an exaggeration, yet the number of persons who could read and write Welsh must have been extremely small outside the ranks of the clergy. During the earlier half of the 17th century the number of Welsh Bibles distributed throughout the Principality could hardly have exceeded 8000 in all, and except the Bible there was scarcely any Welsh work of importance in circulation. The system of the Welsh circulating charity schools, set up by Griffith Jones, rector of Llanddowror, in the 18th century, undoubtedly gave an immense impetus to the spread of popular education in Wales, for it has been stated on good authority that about one-third of the total population was taught to read and write Welsh by means of this system. As a result of Griffith Jones's efforts there quickly arose a vigorous demand for Welsh books of a pious and educational character, which was largely supplied by local Welsh See also:printing-presses. The enthusiastic course of the Methodist movement under Howell Harris, Daniel Rowland and William Williams; the See also:establishment of Welsh Sunday Schools; the founding of the Bible Society under Thomas Charles of Bala; and the revival early in the 19th century of the Eisteddfodau (the ancient bardic contests of See also:music, See also:poetry and learning), have all contributed to extend the use of the Welsh language and to strengthen its hold as a popular See also:medium of education throughout the Principality. In 1841 the Welsh-speaking population was computed at 67% of the total, and in 1893 Welsh was understood or spoken by over 6o% of the inhabitants in the twelve Welsh counties with the exception of the following districts, wherein English is the prevailing or the sole language employed:—viz. nearly the whole of Radnorshire; east Flint, including the neighbouring districts of Ruabon and Wrexham in Denbighshire; east Brecknock; east Montgomery; south Pembroke, with the adjoining district of Laugharne in Carmarthenshire; and the districts of Gower, Vale of Glamorgan and Cardiff in south Glamorgan. In Mon-mouth, the eastern portion of the county is purely English-speaking, and in the western districts English also prevails (J. E. Southall, Linguistic Map of Wales). Before tracing the history of Welsh sounds, it will be convenient to give the values of the letters in the modern See also:alphabet:—Tenues: p; t; c (=Eng. k). Mediae: b; d; g (=Eng. hard g). Voiceless spirants: ff or ph (=Eng. f); th (=Eng. th in thick) ; ch( = Scottish ch in See also:loch). Voiced spirants: f (=Eng. v); dd (=Eng. th in this); the guttural voiced spirant (y) disappeared early in Welsh. Voiceless nasals: nth; nh; ngh. Voiced nasals: m; n; ng. Voiceless liquids: ll (unilateral voiceless l); rh (voiceless r). Voiced liquids: l; r. Sibilant: s (Welsh has no z). Aspirate: h. Semi-vowels: i (=Eng. y in yard); w (=Eng. w). The sounds of t and d are more dental than in English, though they vary; the voiced spirants are very soft; the voiceless nasals are aspirated, thus nh is similar to Eng. nh in inhale; r is trilled as in See also:Italian. Vowels: a, e, i, o have the same values as in Italian; w as a vowel=north Eng. oo in book or Italian u; y has two sounds—(1) the clear sound resembling the Eng. i in See also:bit, but pronounced farther back; (2) the obscure sound=Eng. i in See also:fir; u in Med. Welsh had the sound of French u, but now has the clear sound of y described above, which is similar to the See also:ear, and has the same See also:pitch. The Welsh language belongs to the Celtic See also:branch of the See also:Aryan or Indo-See also:European family of See also:languages. Primitive Celtic split up, as already shown, into two dialects, represented in modern times by two See also:groups of languages—(i) the Goidelic group, comprising Irish, Scottish, Gaelic and See also:Manx. (2) The Brythonic or Brittonic 1 group, comprising Welsh, See also:Breton and Cornish. In the Goidelic group qu appears as c, thus Irish cethir, " four "; in the Brythonic group it is changed into p, as in Welsh pedwar, " four." Gaulish, which was supplanted in France by Latin, had p, as in petor-ritum, " four-wheeled See also:car," and is thus allied to the Brythonic group; but it is believed that remains of a See also:continental Celtic qu- See also:dialect appear in such names as See also:Sequani, and in some recently discovered See also:inscriptions. The sounds of parent Aryan appeared in Primitive Celtic with the following modifications: p disappeared, thus Aryan * peter, which gave Latin See also:pater, Eng. father, gave in Irish athir; corresponding to Eng. See also:floor, we have Irish far, Welsh llawr. The velar tenuis q, when labialized, became qu, without labialization became k; the velar See also:media p became b or g. The aspirated mediae bh, dh, gh, ph were treated as unaspirated b, d, g, p; probably also the rare aspirated tenues fell together with the unaspirated. The other Aryan consonants seem generally to have remained. Aryan a, i, u remained. Aryan e became i, as in Irish fir, Welsh gwir, ' true, cognate with Latin ver-us. Aryan o became a, as in Irish far, cognate with Anglo-Saxon See also:flor, Eng. floor. The short vowels remained, except that Aryan a became a, as in the other European branches. In Brythonic, primitive Celtic qu became p, as above noted. Probably also Celtic u was advancing or had advanced to a forward position, for it appears in Welsh as i, as in din, " stronghold," from Celtic *dun-on, cognate with Eng. town, while Latin u, borrowed in the Brythonic period, gives u with its Welsh sound above described, as in See also:mar, " See also:wall," from Latin mur-us. The Aryan system of See also:inflexion was preserved in Celtic, as may be seen in See also:Stokes 's restoration of Celtic declension (Trans. Philol. See also:Soc., 1885-1886, pp. 97-201); and Brythonic was probably as highly inflected as Latin. The development of Brythonic into Welsh is analogous to that of Latin into French. Unfortunately, the extant remains of Brythonic are scanty; but in the Roman period it borrowed a large number of Latin words, which, as we know their original forms, and as they underwent the same modifications as other words in the language, enable us to trace the phonetic changes by which Brythonic became Welsh. These changes are briefly as follows: 1. Loss of Syllables.--The last syllable of every word of more than one syllable was dropped; thus Latin termin-us gives in Welsh lerfyn; the name Sabrin-a 2 " Severn " became Hafren. The loss extends to the See also:stem-ending of the first See also:element of a See also:compound, thus the personal name Maglo-cunos became Maelgwn; and generally to unaccented syllables, thus episcopus became *epscop, whence esgob; trinitat-em gives trindod. The See also:accusative is often the See also:case represented in Welsh; but we have also the nominative, and sometimes both, as in ciwed from civit-as, and ciwdod from civilat-em, now two words, not two cases of the same word. Aryan declension naturally disappeared with the loss of final syllables. 2. Consonant Changes.—(I) Between two vowels, or a vowel and a liquid, the seven consonants p, t, c, b, d, g, m, became respectively b, d, g, f, dd, -, f, where "-" represents the lost voiced spirant y. Examples: Latin cupidus gave cybydd; See also:Tacitus gave 1 The Bretons See also:call their language Brezonek; the Welsh bards sometimes call Welsh Brythoneg: both forms imply an original *Brittonica. 2 The i was short: Sabrina would have given Hefrin in Welsh. Tegyd; laborem gave llafur; sagitla gave saeth; remus gave rhwyf. This See also:change is called the " soft mutation." (2) After nasals p, t, c, b, d, g became respectively mh, nh, ngh, m, n, ng; thus tmperator gave ymherawdr, and ambactos (evidently a Brythonic as well as a Gaulish word) gave amaeth (m, though etymologically See also:double, is written single). This change is called the " nasal mutation." (3) pp, tt, cc became respectively ph or ff, th, ch; thus peccatum gave pechawd, later pechod; and Brittones gave Brython. This change is called the " spirant mutation." The tenuis becomes a spirant also after r or 1, as in corff from corpus, and Elffin from Alpinus; but It gives lit or ll. The combinations act, ect, oct, uct gave aeth, aith, oeth, wyth, respectively; as in doeth, " wise," from See also:Lat. doctus, ffrwyth from fructus. (4) Original s between vowels (but not Latin s) became it, and disappeared ; initially it generally appears as h, as in halen, " See also:salt," sometimes as s, as in saith, " seven." Initial l and r became ll and rh, as seen in examples in (I) above; but between vowels they remained. Similarly initial v became gw, as in gwin, from Latin vnum, remaining between vowels, though now written w, as in ciwed from civitas. A consonant occurring medially is, generally speaking, invariable in the present language; thus the p and d of cupidus are b and dd in cybydd; but with the initial consonant the case is different. In one combination the initial may remain; thus *oinos cupidus gave un cybydd, " one See also:miser "; in another combination it may have originally stood between vowels, and so is mutated, as in *duo cupido, which gave dau gybydd, " two misers." Thus arose the system of " initial mutation ": an initial consonant may retain its original form, or may undergo any of the changes to which it is.subject. The names given above to these changes are those by which they are known when they occur initially the unchanged form being called the " See also:radical." The liquids 1 and r were brought into the system, the initial forms ll and rh being regarded as " radical." The initial mutations, then, are as follows: Radical . p t c b d g m ll rh 1 Soft . . b d g f dd — f 1 r Nasal mh nh ngh m n ng No change. Spirant ~ ph th ch No change. No change. The initial mutation of any word depends upon its position in the See also:sentence, and is determined by a grammatical rule which can ordinarily be traced to a generalization of the original phonetic conditions. Thus the second element of a compound word, even though written and accented as a separate word, has a soft initial, because in Brythonic the first element of a compound generally ended in a vowel, as in the name Maglo-cunos. The more important rules for initial mutation are the following: the soft mutation occurs in a feminine singular noun after the article, thus y fam, " the mother " (radical mam); in an See also:adjective following a feminine singular noun, as in mam dda, " a good mother " (da, " good ") ; in a noun following a See also:positive adjective, as in See also:hen See also:dOn, " old man," because this order represents what was originally a compound; in a noun following dy, " thy," and ei, " his," thus dy See also:ben, "thy head," ei ben, " his head " (pen, " head "); in the object after a verb; in a noun after a See also:simple preposition; in a verb after the relative a. The nasal mutation occurs after fy, " my " and yn, " in "; thus fy mhen, " my head " (pen, " head , yn Nhalgarth, ' at See also:Talgarth." The spirant mutation occurs after a, " and," " with," ei, " her "; thus a phen, " and a head," ei phen, " her head." 3. Vowel Changes.—(i) Long a, whether from Aryan a or o or from Latin a, becomes aw in monosyllables, as in brawd, " brother " from *brater; in the penult it is o, as in broder, " brothers," in the ultima aw, later o, as in pechawd, now pechod, from peccatum. Long, i, whether from Aryan e or i, or from Latin i, remains as i, see examples above. Latin e was identified with a native diphthong ei, and becomes ivy, as in rhwyf from remus. Latin o and u appear as u; see examples above. A long vowel when unaccented See also:counts short, thus peccatorem treated as *peccatorem, gave pechadur. (2) Short a, e, o remain; short i became y; and u became y (with its obscure sound) in the penult, remaining in the ultima, though now written w. But short vowels have been affected by vowels in succeeding syllables. These " affections " of vowels are as follows: (a) I-See also:affection, caused by i in a lost termination: a becomes ai or ei, and it, o, a became y, more rarely ai or ei. Thus *bardos gave bardd, but pl. *bardi gave beirdd; episcopt gave espyb, " bishops." This change is also caused by -o, as in lleidr, " thief," from See also:laird. (p) A-affection, caused by a in a lost ending: i becomes e (instead of y); u becomes o. Thus civitas gave ciwed; coliitmna gave colofn. (y) Penultimate affection: i or y in the ultima causes several changes in the penult, as See also:arch, " order," erchi, " to bid "; saer, " See also:carpenter," pl. seiri; caer, " fort," pl. ceyrydd. (3) In the modern language other vowel changes occur by a change of position; thus ai, au, aw in the ultima become ei, eu, o respectively in the penult, as dail, " leaves," deilen, " See also:leaf "; haul, " See also:sun," heulog, " sunny "; brawd, " brother," pl. broder or brodyr. The last is an old interchange of sounds, and probably the others are older than their first appearance in See also:writing ((15th century) suggests.269 See also:Accidence.—Welsh has a definite article yr, " the," which becomes 'r after a vowel, and y before a consonant unless already reduced to 'r. Thus yr oen, " the See also:lamb," i'r ty, " into the house, ' yn y ty, " in the house." The noun has two numbers, and two genders, masculine and feminine. A plural noun is formed from the singular by i-affection: thus bardd, " See also:bard," pl. beirdd; ffon, " stick," pl. ffyn; or by adding a termination as ffenestr, " window," pl. ffenestri, with any consequent vowel change, as brawd, " brother," pl. brodyr; gwlad, country," pl. gwledydd. The terminations chiefly used are -au, -See also:ion, -on, -t, -ydd, -oedd. These are old stem endings See also:left after the loss of the original -es; thus laird gives lleidr, latrones gives lladron; the forms having dd represent j stems, k becoming dd in certain positions. In some cases the singular is formed from the plural by the addition of -yn or -en; thus set., " stars," seren, " star."
Feminine names of living things are formed from the masculine by the addition of -es, as brenin, " king," brenhines, " queen "; flew, " See also:lion," llewes, " lioness." It is difficult to See also:lay down rules for the determination of the gender of names of inanimate See also:objects.
Adjectives are inflected for number and gender. Plural adjectives are formed from the singular by i-affection or by adding the termination -ion or -on; thus hardd, " beautiful," pl. heirdd; glas, " See also:blue," pl. gleision.
Adjectives having y or w are made feminine by a-affection, due to the lost feminine ending -a; thus gwyn, " See also: 'i; pl. I. 'n, 2. 'ch, 3. 'u. Affixed: sing. I. i, 2, di, 3. ef, &c., like the simple forms. The See also:demonstrative pronouns are hwn, " this," hwnnw, " that," See also:fern. hon. honno, pl. hyn, hynny. The relative pronouns are nominative and accusative a, oblique cases ydd, yr, y. The expressions yr hwn, -y neb, " the one," are mistaken for relatives by the old grammarians; the true relative follows: yr hwn a=" the one who.' The interrogative pronouns are substantival pwy ? =" who ? " adjectival pa? Substantival " what ? " is expressed by pa beth? " what thing ? " or shortly beth? The verb has four tenses in the indicative, one in the subjunctive, and one in the imperative. The old passive See also:voice has become an impersonal active, each tense having one form only. The regular verb caraf, " I love," is conjugated thus: Indicative—Pres. (and fut.) sing. i. caraf, 2. ceri, 3. car; pl. I. carwn, 2. cerwch, 3. carant; impers. cerir. Imperfect sing. i. carwn, 2. cant, 3. See also:carat; pl. I. carem, 2. carech, 3. cerynt, carent; impers. cerid. See also:Aorist sing. I. cerais, 2. ceraisl, 3. carodd; pl. I. carasom, 2. carasoch, 3. carasant; impers. carwyd. Pluperfect sing. I. caraswn, 2. carasit, 3. carasai; pl. I. carasem, 2. carasech, 3. caresynt, -asent • impers. caresid. Subjunctive—Pres. sing. i. carwyf, 2. cerych, 3. taro; pl.'. carom, 2. caroch, 3. caront ; impers. carer. Imperative—Pres. sing. 2. car, 3. cared; pl. I. carwn, 2. cerwch, 3. carent ; impers. carer. Verbal noun, caru, " to love." Verbal adjectives, caredig, " loved," caradwy, " lovable." As in other languages the verb " to be " and its compounds are irregular; the number of other irregular verbs is comparatively small. Prepositions also are " conjugated " in Welsh, their objects, if pronominal, being expressed by endings. Thus ar, " on," arnaf, on me," arnat, " on thee," See also:arno, " on him," arni, " on her," arnom, " on us," arnoch, " on you," arnynt, " on them." The second conjugation has for endings -of, -ot, -ddo, -ddi; -om, -och, -ddynt; the third -yf, -yt, -ddo. -ddi; -ym, -ych, -ddynt. The negative adverbs are ni, nid, conjunctive na, natl. Interrogative particles: a, ai. Affirmative particles: yr, fe. The commoner conjunctions are a, ac, " and "; ond, eithr, " but "; o, os, " if "; See also:pan, " when "; tra, " while." Syntax.—A qualifying adjective follows its noun, and agrees with it in gender and generally in number. It may, however, precede its noun, and a compared adjective generally does so. In a simple sentence the usual order of words is the following:—verb, subject, object, adverb; as prynodd Dafydd lyfr yno, " David bought a book there." The verb may be preceded by an affirmative, a negative, or an interrogative particle. When a noun comes first, it is followed by a relative pronoun, thus, Dafydd a brynodd lyfr yno, which really means " (it is) David who bought a book there," and is never used in any other sense in the spoken language, though in literary Welsh it is used rhetorically for the simple statement which is properly expressed by patting the verb first. In negative and interrogative sentences this rhetorical use does not occur. In a simple interrogative sentence the See also:introductory particle before the verb is a, and the positive See also:answer consists in a repetition of the verb; a ddaw Dafydd ? Daw. " Will David come ? Yes." If the verb is aorist the answer is do for all verbs. In negative answers na precedes the verb. In sentences in which a noun comes first, the interrogative particle is ai, and the answer is always, positive Ie, negative nape; as ai Dafydd a ddaw? ie. " Is it David who will come ? Yes." A relative pronoun immediately precedes its verb and can only be separated from it by an infixed pronoun, thus Dafydd a'i prynodd, " (it is) David who bought it," yno y'm gweli, " (it is) there that See also:thou wilt see me." If the relative is the object of a preposition, the latter is put at the end of the clause, and has a personal ending, thus y ty y See also:burn yaddo, literally, " the house which I-was in-it." The verb does not agree with its subject unless the latter is a personal pronoun; when the subject is a noun the verb is put in the third person singular; thus carant, " they love," can take a pro-nominal subject—carant hwy, " they love "; but " the men love " is car y dynion (not carant y dynion, which can only mean " they love the men "). In relative clauses the verb is sometimes made to agree; but in the oldest poetry we generally find the singular verb, as in the oft-repeated Gododin phrase Gwyr a aeth Gatraeth, " men who went (to) Catraeth " (not Gwyr a aethant). AUTHORir[ES.—J. D. Rhys, Cambrobrytannicae Cymraecaeue linguae institetiones (1592); John Davies, Antiqae linguae Britannicae . . rvdimenta (1621)• Antiquae linguae Britannicae dictionariuna duplex (1632); Edward Lhuyd, Archaeologic Britannia( (1707); W. O. Pughe, See also:Grammar and See also:Dictionary' (1832), vitiated by absurd etymological theories; J. C. Zeuss, Grammatica Celtica (2nd ed. by H. See also:Ebel, 1871)—an See also:index to the 0 Welsh glosses cited in this work was compiled by V. See also:Tourneur in Archiv See also:fur celt. Lexikographie, iii. 109-137; T. Rowland, Grammar of the Welsh Language 4 (1876), containing a large collection of facts about the modern language, badly arranged and wholly undigested; Rhys, Lectures on Welsh Philology2 (1879); J. See also:Strachan, An Introduction to Early Welsh, with a Reader (See also:Manchester, 1909); Stokes, " Urkeltischer Sprachschatz," in Fick's Vergleichendes Worterbuch der idg. Sprachen 4, ii. (1894) ; E. Anwyl, Welsh Grammar for Schools, i. (1898), ii. (1899) ; J. See also:Morris Jones, Historical Welsh Grammar, i. (1911); W. Spurrek, Welsh-English and English-Welsh Dictionary (Carmarthen 5, 1904) ; D. Silvan See also:Evans, Welsh Dictionary, A-E (1888–1906). The last-named received a See also:subsidy from the British government. Some corrections and additions to the early volumes, by J. Loth, will be found in Arch. f. celt. Lex. vol. i. See also H. Sweet, " Spoken N. Welsh," in Trans. of the London Phil. Soc., 1882–1884; T. See also:Darlington, " Some Dialectal Boundaries in Mid-Wales," in Trans. of the Hon. Soc. of Cymmrodorion, 1900–1901; and M. Nettlau, Beitrdge zur cymrischen Grammatik (See also:Leipzig, 1887), also in Rev. celt. vol. ix. (J. M. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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