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JOSHUA, BOOK OF
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See also:JOSHUA, See also:BOOK OF , the See also:sixth book of the Old Testament, and the first of the See also:group known as the " Former Prophets." It takes its name from Joshua' the son of See also:Nun, an Ephraimite who, on the See also:death of See also:Moses, assumed the leadership to which he had previously been designated by his See also:chief (Deut. xxxi. 14 seq., 23), and proceeded to the See also:conquest of the See also:land of See also:Canaan. The book differs from the See also:Pentateuch or Torah in the See also:absence of legal See also:matter, and in its intimate connexion with the narrative in the books which follow. It is, however, the proper sequel to the origins of the See also:people as related in See also:Genesis, to the See also:exodus of the Israelite tribes from See also:Egypt, and their journeyings in the See also:wilderness. On these and also on See also:literary grounds it is often convenient to class the first six books of the See also:Bible as a unit under the See also:term " See also:Hexateuch." For an exhaustive detailed study has revealed many signs of diversity of authorship which combine to show that the book is due to the See also:incorporation of older material in two See also:main redactions; one deeply imbued with the See also:language and thought of See also:Deuteronomy itself (D), the other of the See also:post-exilic priestly circle (P) which gave the Pentateuch its See also:present See also:form. That the older See also:sources (which often prove to be composite) are actually identical with the Yahwist or Judaean (J) and the Elohist or Ephraimite (E) narratives (on which see GENESIS) is not improbable, though, especially as regards the former, still very uncertain. In See also:general the literary problems are exceedingly intricate, and no See also:attempt can be made here to See also:deal with them as fully as they deserve. The Invasion.—The book falls naturally into two main parts, of which the first, the See also:crossing of the See also:Jordan and the conquest of See also:Palestine (i.–xii.) is mainly due to Deuteronomic compilers. It opens with the preparations for the crossing of the Jordan and the See also:capture of the powerful See also:city See also:Jericho. Ai, near See also:Bethel, is taken after a temporary repulse, and Joshua proceeds to erect an See also:altar upon Mt Ebal (See also:north of See also:Shechem). For the fullness with which the events are recorded the writers were probably indebted to See also:local stories. The Israelites are at See also:Abel-Shittim (already reached in Num. See also:xxv. 1). Moses is dead, and Joshua enters upon his task with the help of the Transjordanic tribes who have already received their territory (i). The narrative is of the later prophetic See also:stamp (D; cf. Deut. iii. 18–22, xi. 24, where Moses is the See also:speaker; xxxi. 1–8), but may be based upon an earlier and shorter See also:record (E; vv. r seq., lo, Ila), 1 Neb. Jehoshua; later Jeshua; Gr. 'I,wovs, whence " Jesus " in the A.V. of Heb. iv. 8; another form of the name is See also:Hoshea (Num. xiii. 8, 16). The name may mean " Yah(weh) is See also:wealth, or is (our) See also:war-cry, or saves." The only extra-biblical See also:notice of Joshua is the inscription of more than doubtful genuineness given by See also:Procopius (Vand. ii. 20), and mentioned also by Moses of Chorene (Hist. See also:Arm. i. 18). It is said to have stood at Tingis in See also:Mauretania, and to have See also:borne that those who erected it had fled before 'Irtooii o Xnarir. For the See also:medieval Samaritan Book of Joshua, see T. Juynboll, Chronicum Samaritanum (1846); J. A. See also:Montgomery, The See also:Samaritans (1907), pp. 301 sqq. Of the See also:mission of the spies to Jericho, two versions were current (duplicates ii. 3, 12, 18 ; v. 15 seq. breaks the connexion between vv. 13 and 18, but is resumed in vv. 22-24) ; D's addition is to be recog- nized in ii. 9b-I i. The incident occupies at least four days, but the main narrative reckons three days between i. 11 and iii. 2. Next follow the passage of the Jordan (commemorated by the erection of twelve stones), the encampment at See also:Gilgal, and the observance of the rite of See also:circumcision and of the See also:passover (iii.-v.). The complicated narrative in iii.-iv. is of composite origin (contrast in. 17 with iv. lo seq., 19; iv. 3, 8 with vv. 9, 20; and cf. M. 12 with the superfluous iv. 2, &c.). As in ii., D has amplified (iii. 4b, 7, lob, iv. 9-IOa, 12, 14; more prominently in iv. 2I-v. I, V. 4-8), and subsequently P (or a See also:hand akin to P) has worked over the whole (iii. 4, See also:note the number and the See also:prohibition, cf. Num. i. 51 ; iii. 8, 15 seq. ; iv. 13, 19 ; v. 10-12). Circumcision, already See also:familiar from Exod. iv. 26, Deut. x. 16, is here regarded as a new rite (v. 2, 9, supplemented by vv. 1, 4-8), but the conflicting views have been harmonized by the words " the second See also:time " (v. 2). Gilgal is thus named from the " See also:rolling away " of the " reproach of Egypt " (v. 9), but iv. 20 suggests a different
origin, viz. the sacred See also: Both here and in the preceding chapters the See also:Septuagint has several See also:variations and omissions, due either to an (unsuccessful) attempt to simplify the present difficulties, or to the use of another recension. The curse pronounced by Joshua upon tha destroyed city of Jericho (vi. 26) should be associated with an incident in the reign of See also:Ahab which is acquainted with the story (1 See also:Kings xvi. 34) ; the city, how- ever, reappears in Joshua xviii. 21; 2 Sam. x. 5. Achan's See also:sacrilege, the cause of the repulse at Ai and of the naming of the valley of Achor (vii.), is introduced by vi. 18 seq., 24b, and, as its spirit shows, is of relatively later date. It contains some probable traces of D (in vii. 5, 7, I I seq., 15, 25) and P (in vv. 1, 18, 24 seq.). The capture of Ai has marks of the same dual origin as the preceding chapters (cf. viii. 3a with io, and contrast viii. 3-9 with v. 12; vv. 5-7 with 18, 26; v. 19 with 28). The general resemblance between chs. and the war with See also:Benjamin (Judges xx.) should be noticed. Conquests in Palestine.—The erection of the altar, not at the See also:scene of See also:battle (cf. I Sam. xiv. 35) but on Mt Ebal (viii. 30-35, D), presupposes the conquest of central Palestine and the removal of the ark from Gilgal. These, however, are not narrated, and, unless some account of them has been replaced by the present passage, this portion of the conquest was ignored. Possibly the passage is not in its See also:original position: in the Septuagint it appears after ix. 2, while See also:Josephus (See also:Ant. v. 1, 19) and the Samaritan book of Joshua read it before ch. xiii.; See also:Dillmann, however, would See also:place it after xi. 23. The capture of Jericho and Ai is followed by the successful stratagem of the See also:Gibeonites to make See also:peace with See also:Israel (ix.). This involves them in a war with the See also:southern Canaanites; Joshua intervenes and obtains a crowning victory (x.). The See also:camp is still at Gilgal. A similar conquest of the See also:northern Canaanites follows (xi.), and the first part of the book concludes with a See also:summary of the results of the Israelite invasion (xii.). No satisfactory explanation of viii. 30-35 has been found, yet ix. I seq. seems to show that it was the prelude to the Canaanite See also:wars. In contrast to the absence of any reference to the occupation of central Palestine, the conquest of the See also:south was current in several divergent traditions. Two records are blended in ix.; one narrates the See also:covenant with the Gibeonites, the other that with the See also:Hivites (properly Hivvites) ; and in the latter Joshua has no place (vv. 4 seq., 6b, 7, 11-14, &c.). The former has additions by D (vv. 9b, Io, 24 seq.) and by P (v. 15 last clause, 17-21) ; the latter, in accordance with the legislation of its day (posterior to Ezek. xliv. 6 sqq.), does not allow the Gibeonites to See also:minister to the See also:temple or altar, but merely to the " See also:congregation," a characteristic post-exilic term (contrast vv. 21 and 23; and on 27 see See also:Sept. and commentaries). The story of the covenant conflicts with the notice that See also:Gibeon was still an See also:independent Canaanite city in See also:David's time (2 Sam. xxi. 2). The defeat of the southern See also:coalition is based, as the doublets show, upon two sources; the war arises from two causes (vengeance upon the Gibeonites, and the attempt to overthrow Israel), and concludes with a twofold victory: in x. 16-24 the kings are pursued to Makkedah and slain, in v. II they are smitten by a See also:great hailstorm in their See also:flight to Azekah (cf. I Sam. vii. To, xiv. 15, in the same See also:district). Redactional links have been added, apparently by D, to whom is possibly due the See also:stanza quoted from the book of See also:Jashar (v. 12 seq.), a poetical address to the See also:sun and See also:moon, of the nature of a See also:prayer or spell for their aid (cf. Judges v. 20, and see Ecclus. xlvi. 4). Theliteral See also:interpretation of this picturesque See also:quotation has been influenced by the prosaic comments at the end of v. 13 and beginning of v. 14. See also:Verse 15, which closes the account, anticipates v. 43; the Septuagint omits both. The generalizing narrative (x. 28-43), which is due to D in its present form, is partly based upon old matter (e.g. the capture of Makkedah), but is inconsistent with what precedes (v. 37, see v. 23 sqq.) and follows (capture of Debir, v. 38 seq., see xv. 15; Judges i. 1I). The description of the conquest of the northern Canaanites is very similar to that of the south. The main part is from an older source (xi. 1, 4-9; see See also:DEBORAH), the amplifications (v. 2 seq.) are due to D, as also are the summary (vv. 10-23, cf. See also:style of x. 28-43), and the enumeration of the See also:total results of the invasion (xii.), which includes names not previously mentioned. See also:Division of the Land.—The result of the events narrated in the first part of the book is to ascribe the entire subjugation of Canaan to Joshua, whose centre was at Gilgal (x. 15, 43). He is now " old and advanced in years, " and although much outlying land remained to be possessed, he is instructed to See also:divide the conquered districts among the western tribes (xiii. 1 sqq.). This is detailed at length in the second part of the book. With the completion of the division his mission is accomplished. The main See also:body of this part (xiii. 15-xiv. 5; xv.-xvii.; xviii. 11-xxi. 42; xxii. 7-34) is in its present form almost entirely due to P. In regard to details, xiii. 2-6 (now D) expresses the view that the conquest was incomplete, and See also:numbers districts chiefly in the south-See also:west and in the See also:Lebanon. Two sources deal with the See also:inheritance of the See also:east Jordan tribes in terms which are—(a) general (xiii. 8-12, D), and (b) precise (vv. 15-32, P). The latter stands between the duplicate passages xiii. 14 and 32 seq. (see the Sept.). With the See also:interest taken in these tribes, cf. for (a) i. 12-18; Deut. iii. 12-22, and the sequel in Joshua xxii. 1-6; and for (b) xxii. 9 seq.; Num. xxxii. P's account of the division opens with an See also:introductory notice of the manner in which Eleazar the See also:priest and Joshua (note the See also:order) prepare to See also:complete the See also:work which Moses had begun (xiv. 1-5). It opens with See also:Judah, its See also:borders (xv. 1-12) and cities (vv. 20-62), and continues with the two See also:Joseph tribes, See also:Ephraim (xvi. 4-9, contrast details in vv. 1—3) and See also:Manasseh (xvii. 1-10, cf. Num. See also:xxvi. 30-32, See also:XXVii. I-I I ; P). There is now a break in the narrative (xviii. 2-IO, source uncertain) ; seven tribes have not yet received an inheritance, and Joshua (alone) encourages them to send three men from each tribe to walk through the land—excluding the territory of Judah and Joseph—and to bring a description of it to him, after which he divides it among them by See also:lot. P i now resumes with an account of the borders and cities of Benjamin (xviii. 11-28), See also:Simeon, See also:Zebulun, See also:Issachar, See also:Asher, See also:Naphtali and See also:Dan (xix. ; on v. 47, see below); and, after the subscription (xix. 51), concludes with the institution of the cities of See also:refuge (xx., cf. Num. See also:xxxv.), and of the Levitical cities (xxi., contrast the earlier brief notice, xiii. 14, 33). See also:Chapter xx., belonging to the Predaction, has certain points of contact with Deut. xix. which, it is very important to observe, are wanting in the Septuagint ; and xxi. 43-45 closes D's account of the division, and in the Septuagint contains matter most of which is now given by See also:Pin xix. 49 seq. Two narratives describe the dismissal of the trans-Jordanic tribes after their co-operation in the conquest, viz. xxii. 1-6 (D), and xxii. 9 seq. (P) ; cf. above, on xiii. 8 seq. P, with the description of the erection of the altar (v. 34, See also:Gilead ? ; cf. Gen. xxxi. 47 seq.), is apparently a See also:late re-See also:writing of some now obscure incident to emphasize the unity of See also:worship. P's account of the See also:distribution of land among the nine and a See also:half tribes by Eleazar and Joshua (from xiv. 1-5 to xix. 51) appears to have been on the lines laid down in Num. xxxiv. (P). The scene, according to xviii. 1, is See also:Shiloh, and this verse, which does not belong to the context, should apparently precede P's narrative in xiv. I. But of the occupation of Shiloh, the famous Ephraimite See also:sanctuary and the seat of the ark, we have no See also:information. The older source, however, presupposes that Judah and the two Joseph tribes have acquired their territory; the remaining seven are blamed for their indifference (xviii. 2-IO, see above), and receive their lot conjointly at the camp at Shiloh. But if the location is an attempt to harmonize with xviii. 1, Gilgal should probably be restored. The See also:section xviii. 2-Io is followed by xxi. 43 seq. (above), and may have been preceded originally by xiii. 1, 7 (where read: inheritance for the seven tribes); in its present form it appears to be due to D. Another account of the exploits of Judah and Joseph can be traced here and there; e.g. in xiv. 6-15 (where See also:Caleb receives See also:Hebron as his inheritance and the " land had See also:rest from war "), and xvii. 14-18 (where Joseph receives an additional lot) ; but where these traditions have not been worked into later narratives, they exist only in fragmentary form and are chiefly recognizable by their standpoint. They are characterized by the view that the conquest was only a partial one, and one which was neither the work of a single See also:man nor at his instigation, but due i Traces of composite material may be recognized—(a) where, in place of boundaries, P has given lists of cities which appear to be taken from other sources (cf. the instructions in xviii. 9), and (b) in the See also:double headings (see Addis, The Hexateuch, i. 230, note 1, and the commentaries). entirely to individual or tribal achievements. This view can be traced in xiii. 13, xv. 63 (cf. the parallel Judges i. 21 in contrast to v. 8), xvi. io (Judges i. 29), xvii. 11–13 (Judges i. 27 seq.), and in the references to See also:separate tribal or See also:family exploits: xv. 13–19, xix. 47 (cf. Judges i. 34 seq., xviii.). Two closing addresses are ascribed to Joshua, one an exhortation similar to the homilies in secondary portions of Deuteronomy (See also:xxiii.; cf. Moses in Deut. See also:xxviii. seq., and See also:Samuel's last address in 1 Sam. xii.), which virtually excludes the other (See also:xxiv.), where Joshua assembles the tribes at Shechem (Shiloh, in the Septuagint) and passes under See also:review the See also:history of Israel from the days of heathenism (before See also:Abraham was brought into Canaan) down through the oppression in Egypt, the exodus, the conquest in East Jordan and the occupation of Canaan. A few otherwise unknown details are to be found (xxiv. 2, 11 seq. 14). The address (which is extremely important for its See also:representation of the religious conditions) is made the occasion for a See also:solemn covenant whereby the people agree to cleave to Yahweh alone. This is commemorated by the erection of a stone under the See also:oak by the sanctuary of Yahweh (for the See also:tree with its sacred See also:pillar, see Gen. xxxv. 4; Judges ix. 6). The people are then dismissed, and the book closes in See also:ordinary narrative style with the death of Joshua and his See also:burial in his inheritance at Timnath-serah in Mt Ephraim (cf. xix. 49 seq.); the burial of Joseph in Shechem; and the death and burial of Eleazar the son of See also:Aaron in the " See also: 1 lb, 13, 31) suggest that it was inserted by a Deuteronomic hand, evidently distinct from the author of xxiii. But elsewhere there are traces of secondary Deuteronomic expansion and of See also:internal incongruities in Deuteronomic narratives; contrast xiv. 6–15 with Joshua's extermination of the " Anakim " in xi. 21 seq. ; the use of this name with the " See also:Philistines " of xiii. 2 (see PHILISTINES), or the conquests in xi. 16–22 with the names in x. 36–43. All these passages are now due to D; but not only is Deuteronomy itself composite, a twofold redaction can be traced in Judges, Samuel and Kings, thus involving the deeper literary problems of Joshua with the See also:historical books generally.' Both Joshua xxiii. and xxiv. are closely connected with the very complicated introduction to the era of the " judges " in Judges ii. 6 sqq., and ii. 6–9 actually resume Joshua xxiv. 28 sqq., while the Septuagint appends to the See also:close of Joshua the beginning of the story of See also:Ehud (Judges iii. 12 seq.). Both Judges i.–ii.5 and See also:chap. xvii.–xxi. areofpost-Deuteronomic insertion, and they represent conditions analogous to the older notices imbedded in the later work of P (Judges i. 21, xix. 10-12, cf. Joshua xv. 63; see JUDGES ad fin.). Moreover, P in its turn shows elsewhere definite indications of different periods and standpoints, and the fluid See also:state of the book at a late See also:age is shown by the presence of Deuteronomic elements in Joshua xx., not found in the Septuagint, and by the numerous and often striking readings which the latter recension presents. Value of the Book.—The value of the book of Joshua is primarily religious; its fervency, its conviction of the destiny of Israel and its inculcation of the unity and greatness of the See also:God of Israel give expression to the See also:philosophy of Israelite historians. As an historical record its value must depend upon a careful See also:criticism of its contents in the See also:light of biblical history and See also:external information. Its description of the conquest of Canaan comes from an age when the event was a See also:shadow of the past. It is an ideal view of the manner in which a divinely appointed See also:leader guided a See also:united people into the promised land of their ancestors, and, after a few brief wars of extermination (x.–xii.), died leaving the people in quiet See also:possession of their new inheritance (xi. 23; xxi. 44 seq.; xxiii. 1).2 On the other hand, the earlier inhabitants were not finally subjugated until See also:Solomon's reign (1 Kings ix. 2o); See also:Jerusalem was taken by David from the Jebusites (2 Sam. v.); and several sites in its neighbourhood, together with important fortresses like See also:Gezer, Megiddo and Taanach, were not held by Israel at the first. There are traces ' The close relation between what may be called the Deuteronomic history (Joshua–Kings) and its introduction (the legal book of Deuteronomy) independently show the difficulty of supporting the traditional date ascribed to the latter. 2 G. F. See also:Moore (Ency. Bib., See also:col. 2608, note 2) draws See also:attention to the instructive parallel furnished by the See also:Greek legends of the Dorian invasion of the See also:Peloponnesus (the " return " of the Heracleidae, the See also:partition of the land by lot, &c.).of other conflicting traditions representing independent tribal efforts which were not successful, and the Israelites are even said to live in the midst of Canaanites, intermarrying with them and adopting their cult (Judges i.–iii. 6). From a careful See also:consideration of all the See also:evidence, both internal and external, biblical scholars are now almost unanimous that the more finished picture of the Israelite invasion and See also:settlement cannot be accepted as a historical record for the age. It accords with this that the elaborate tribal-lists and boundaries prove to be of greater value for the See also:geography than for the history of Palestine, and the attempts to use them as evidence for the See also:early history of Israel have involved numerous additional difficulties and confusion .3 The book of Joshua has ascribed to one man conquests which are not confirmed by subsequent history. The capture of Bethel, implied rather than described in Joshua viii., is elsewhere the work of the Joseph tribes (Judges i. 22 sqq., cf. features in the conquest of Jericho, Joshua vi. 25). Joshua's victory in north Palestine has its parallel in Judges iv. at another See also:period (see DEBORAH), and See also:Adoni-zedek of Jerusalem (Joshua x.) can scarcely be severed from the Adoni-bezek taken by the tribes of Judah and Simeon (Judges i. 5–7). The prominence of Joshua as military and religious leader, and especially his connexion with Shechem and Shiloh, have suggested that he was a See also:hero of the Joseph tribes of central Palestine (viz. Ephraim and Manasseh). Moreover, the traditions in Joshua viii. 30-ix. 2, and Deut. xxvii. 1–8 seem to place the arrival at Mt Ebal immediately after the crossing of the Jordan. This implies that Israel (like See also:Jacob in Gen. xxxii.) crossed by the Jabbok, and in fact the See also:Wadi Fari'd provides an easy road to Shechem, to the south-east of which lies Juleijil; and while this is the Gilgal of Deut. xi. 30, the battles at Jericho and Ai (Joshua ii. seq.) occur naturally after the encampment at the southern Gilgal (near Jericho). The alternative view (see especially See also:Stade, Gesch. Ise. 1. 133 sqq.) connects itself partly with the ancestor of all the tribes (Jacob, i.e. Israel), and partly with the eponym of the Joseph tribes whose early days were spent around Shechem, the removal of whose bones from Egypt must have found a prominent place in the traditions of the tribes concerned (Gen. 1. 25; Exod. xiii. 19; Joshua xxiv. 32). According to one view (Stade, See also:Wellhausen, Guthe, &c.) only the Joseph tribes were in Egypt, and separate tribal movements (see JUDAH) have been incorporated in the growth of the tradition; the See also:probability that the specific traditions of the Joseph tribes have been excised or subordinated finds support in the manner in which the Judaean P has abridged and confused the tribal lists of Ephraim and Manasseh. The serious See also:character of the problems of early Israelite history can be perceived from the renewed endeavours to present an adequate outline of the course of events; for a criticism of the most prominent hypotheses see See also:Cheyne, Ency. Bib. See also:art. "Tribes" (col. 5209 seq.); a new theory has been'more recently advanced by E. See also:Meyer (See also:Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstamme, 1906). But Joshua as a tribal hero does not belong to the earliest phase in the surviving traditions. He has no place in the See also:oldest surviving narratives of the exodus (Wellhausen, Steuernagel); and only later sources add him to Caleb (Num. xiv. 30; the reference in Deut. i. 38 is part of an insertion), or regard him as the leader of all the tribes (Dent. iii. 21, 28). As an attendant of Moses at the See also:tent of See also:meeting he appears in quite secondary passages (Exod. xxxiii. 7–11; Num. xi. 28). His defeat of the See also:Amalekites is in a narrative (Exod. xvii. 8–16) which belongs more
3 The historical problems are noticed in all biblical histories, and in the commentaries on Joshua and Judges. Against the ordinary See also:critical view, see J. Orr, Problem of the O.T. (1905) pp. 240 seq. This writer (on whom see A. S. Peake, The Interpreter, 1908, pp. 252 seq.) takes the book as a whole, See also:allowance being made for " the generalizing tendency See also:peculiar to all summaries." His See also:argument that " the circumstantiality, local knowledge and evidently full recollection of the narratives (in Joshua) give confidence in the truth of their statements " is one which historical criticism in no See also: Instead of rejecting the older stories of Joshua's conquests it may be preferable to infer that there were See also:radical divergences in the historical views of the past. Consequently, the See also:parallels between Joshua and Jacob (see Steuernagel's Commentary, p. 150) are more significant when the occupation of central Palestine, already implied in the book of Joshua, is viewed in the light of Gen. xlviii. 22, where Jacob as conqueror (cf. the very late form of the tradition in See also:Jubilees xxxiv.) agrees with features in the patriarchal narratives which, in implying a settlement in Palestine, are entirely distinct from those which belong to the descent into Egypt (see especially, Meyer, op. cit. pp. 227 seq., 414 seq., 433; See also:Luther, ib. io8 seq.). The elaborate account of the exodus gives the prevailing views which supersede other traditions of the origin both of the Israelites and of the worship of Yahweh (Gen. iv. 26). Several motives have influenced its growth,' and the See also:kernel—the See also:revelation of Yahweh to Moses—has been See also:developed until all the tribes of Israel are included and their history as a people now begins. The old traditions of conquest in central Palestine have similarly been extended, and have been adapted to the now familiar view of Israelite origins. It is this subordination of earlier tradition to other and more predominating representations which probably explains the intricacy of a bock whose present See also:text may not have been finally fixed until, as Dillmann held, as late as about 200 B.C. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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