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SEPARATE STATES- 43,000 See also:Liberia • See also:Morocco 220,000 See also:Abyssinia 350,000 See also:Total See also:Independent See also:Africa 613,000 Ownership of the See also:African islands. Thus, See also:collecting the totals, the result of the " scramble " has been to See also:divide Africa among the See also:powers as follows:- Sq. m. See also:British Africa . . 2,I01,41I See also:Egyptian Africa 1,600,000 See also:French Africa . 3,866,950 See also:German Africa 910,150 See also:Italian Africa . 200,000 Portuguese Africa 787,500 See also:Spanish Africa 99,800 Belgian Africa 900,000 See also:Turkish Africa 400,000 Independent Africa 613,000 11,458,811 (J. S. K.) VI. EXPLORATION AND SURVEY SINCE 1875 In giving the See also:history of the See also:partition of the See also:continent, the later See also:work of exploration, except where, as in the See also:case of de Brazza's expeditions, it had See also:direct See also:political consequences, has of See also:necessity not been told. The results achieved during and after the See also:period of partition may now be indicated. See also:Stanley's See also:great See also:journey down the See also:Congo in 1875-1876 initiated a new era in African exploration. The See also:numbers of travellers soon became so great that the once marvellous feat of See also:crossing the continent from See also:sea to sea became See also:common. With increased knowledge and much ampler means of communication trans-African travel now presents few difficulties. While d'See also:Anville and other cartographers of the 18th See also:century, by omitting all that was uncertain, had See also:left a great See also:blank on the See also:map, the work accomplished since 1875 has filled it with See also:authentic topographical details. Moreover surveys of high accuracy have been made at several points. As the work of exploration and survey progressed journeys of startling novelty became impossible—See also:save in the. eastern See also:Sahara, where the See also:absence of See also:water and boundless wastes of See also:sand render exploration more difficult, perhaps, than in any other region of the globe. Within their respective See also:spheres of See also:influence each See also:power undertook detailed surveys, and the most solid of the latest accessions to knowledge have resulted from the labours of hard-working colonial officials toiling individually in obscurity. Their work it is impossible here to recognize adequately; the following lines See also:record only the more obvious achievements. The relations of the Congo See also:basin to the neighbouring See also:river systems was brought out by the journeys of many travellers. In 1877 an important expedition was sent out by the Portu- guese See also:government under Serpa See also:Pinto, Brito Capello and Roberto Ivens for the exploration of the interior of See also:Angola. Work In The first named made his way by the See also:head-streams of basin, ongo the Kubango to the upper See also:Zambezi, which he descended to the See also:Victoria Falls, proceeding thence to See also:Pretoria and See also:Durban. Capello and Ivens confined their See also:attention to the See also:south-See also:west Congo basin, where they disproved the existence of See also:Lake Aquilunda, which had figured on the maps of that region since the 16th century. In a later journey (1884-1885) Capello and Ivens crossed the continent from See also:Mossamedes to the mouth of the Zambezi, adding considerably to the knowledge of the border-lands between the upper Congo and the upper Zambezi. More important results were obtained by the German travellers See also:Paul Pogge and See also:Hermann von Wissmann, who (188o-1882) passed through previously unknown regions beyond Muata Yanvo's See also:kingdom, and reached the upper Congo at Nyangwe, whence Wissmann made his way to the See also:east See also:coast. In 1884-1885 a German expedition under Wissmann solved the most important See also:geographical problem See also:relating to the See also:southern Congo basin by descending the See also:Kasai, the largest southern tributary, which, contrary to expectation, proved to unite with the Kwango and other streams before joining the See also:main river. Further additions to the knowledge of the Congo tributaries were made at the same See also:time by the Rev. See also:George Grenfell, a Baptist missionary, who (accompanied in 1885 by K. von See also:Francois) made several voyages in the steamer " See also:Peace," especially up the great See also:Ubangi, ultimately proved to be the See also:lower course of the Welle, discovered in 187o by See also:Schweinfurth. In East as in West Africa operations were started by agents of the Belgian See also:committee, but with less success than on the Congo. The first new journey of importance on this See also:side was made (I$78-1880) on behalf of the British African Ex- Opening ploration Committee by See also:Joseph See also:Thomson, who after the A t See also:death of his See also:leader, See also:Keith See also:Johnston, made his way from the coast to the See also:north end of See also:Nyasa, thence to See also:Tanganyika, on both sides of which he See also:broke new ground, sighting the north end of Lake See also:Rukwa on the east. In 1882-1884 the French See also:naval See also:lieutenant See also:Victor See also:Giraud proceeded by the north of Nyasa to Lake See also:Bangweulu, of which he made the first fairly correct map. North of the See also:Zanzibar-Tanganyika route a large areaof new ground was opened in 1883-1884 by Joseph Thomson, who traversed the whole length of the See also:Masai See also:country to Lake See also:Baringo and Victoria See also:Nyanza, shedding the first clear See also:light on the great East African rift-valley and neighbouring See also:highlands, including Mounts See also:Kenya and See also:Elgon. A great advance in the region between Victoria Nyanza and Abyssinia was made in 1887-1889 by the Austrians, See also:Count See also:Samuel Teleki and Lieut. See also:Ludwig von Hohnel, who discovered the large Basso Norok, now known as Lake See also:Rudolf, till then only vaguely indicated on the map as Samburu. At this time See also:Somaliland was being opened up by See also:English and Italian travellers. In 1883 the See also:brothers F. L. and W. D. See also: Morocco was in 1883-1884 the See also:scene of important explorations by Expedi de Foucauld, a Frenchman who, disguised as a See also:Jew, dons h, crossed and re-crossed the See also:Atlas and supplied the North and first trustworthy See also:information as to the See also:orography of west many parts of the See also:chain. In 1887-1889 See also: See also:Early in 1900 Lake Chad was also reached by F. Foureau, a French traveller, who had already devoted twelve years to the exploration of the ascended the Ruwenzori range to a height of over 13,000 ft. In-the same year Dr O. Baumann, who had already done See also:good work in Usambara, near the coast, started on a more extended journey through the region of See also:steppes between See also:Kilimanjaro and Victoria Nyanza, afterwards exploring the head-streams of the See also:Kagera, the ultimate See also:sources of the Nile. In the See also:steppe region referred to he discovered two new lakes, Manyara and Eiassi, occupying parts of the East African valley See also:system. This region was again traversed in 1893—1894 by Count von Gotzen, who continued his route westwards to Lake See also:Kivu, north of Tanganyika, which, though heard of by See also:Speke.over See also:thirty years before, had never yet been visited. He also reached for the first time the line of volcanic peaks north of Kivu, one of which he ascended, afterwards crossing the great equatorial forest by a new route to the Congo and the west coast. Valuable scientific work was done in 1893 by Dr J. W. See also:Gregory, who ascended See also:Mount Kenya to a height of 16,000 ft. In 1893—1894 -See also:Scott Elliot reached Ruwenzori by way of See also:Uganda, returning by Tanganyika and Nyasa, and in 1896 C. W. Hobley made the. See also:circuit of the great See also:mountain Elgon, north-east of Victoria Nyanza. In 1899 Mount Kenya was ascended to its See also:summit by a party under H. J. Mackinder. The exploration of Mount Kilimanjaro has been the See also:special work of Dr Hans See also:Meyer, who first directed his attention to it in 1887. The region south of Abyssinia proper and north of Lake Rudolf, being largely the basin of the See also:Sobat tributary of the Nile, was traversed by several explorers, among whom may be mentioned Capt. M. S. Wellby, who in 1898—1899 explored the chain of small lakes in south-east Abyssinia, pushed on to Lake Rudolf, and thence traversed hitherto unknown country to the lower Sobat. Donaldson Smith crossed from Berbera to the Nile by Lake Rudolf in 1899—1900, and See also:Major H. H. See also:Austin commanded two survey parties between the Anglo-Egyptian See also:Sudan and Lake Rudolf during 1899-1901. Meantime in south Central Africa the See also:Barotse country had been partly made known by the missionary F. Coillard, who settled there in 1884, while the See also:middle and upper Zambezi basin were scientifically explored and mapped by Major A. St H. See also:Gibbons and his assistants in 1895—1896 and 1898—190o. In the same period the Congo-Zambezi See also:watershed was traced by a Belgian officer, Capt. C. Lemaire, who had ascended one of the upper tributaries of the Kasai. In the early years of the 19th century the first recorded crossing of Africa took See also:place. That crossing and all subsequent crossings had been made either from west to east or east to west. The first journey through the whole length of the continent was accomplished in the two last years of the century when a See also:young Englishman, E. S. Grogan, starting from Cape See also:Town reached the Mediterranean by way of the Zambezi, the central line of lakes and the Nile. Other travellers followed in Grogan's footsteps, among the first, Major Gibbons. Additions to topographical knowledge were made from about 1890 onwards by the See also:international commissions which traced the frontiers of the protectorates of the See also:European powers. On several occasions the labours of the commissions disclosed errors of importance in the maps upon which international agreements had been based. Among those which yielded valuable results were the Anglo-French See also:commission which in 1903 traced the Nigerian frontier from the Niger to Lake Chad, and the Anglo-German commission which in 1903—1904 fixed the Cameroon boundary between See also:Yola, on the Benue, and Lake Chad. These expeditions and French surveys in the same region during 1902—1903 resulted in the discovery that Lake Chad I. 12had greatly decreased in See also:area since the middle of the 19th century. In 1903 a French officer, Capt. E. See also:Lenfant, succeeded in establishing the fact of a connexion between the Niger and Chad basins. Subsequently Lenfant explored the western basin of the Shari, determining (1907) the true upper See also:branch of that river* In East Africa a German-Congolese commission surveyed (1901-1902) Lake Kivu and the volcanic region north of the lake, R. Kandt making a special study of Kivu and the Kagera sources, while the Anglo-German boundary commission of 1902—1.904 surveyed the valley of the lower Kagera, and fixed the exact position of Albert See also:Edward Nyanza. Much new information concerning the border-lands of British East Africa and Abyssinia between Lake Rudolf and the lower Juba was obtained by the survey executed in 1902-1903 by a British officer, See also:Captain P. Maud.
While political requirements led to : the exact determination of frontiers, administrative needs forced the governments concerned to take in See also:hand the survey of the countries under their See also:protection. Before the See also:close of the first See also:decade of the 20th century tolerably accurate maps had been made of the German colonies, of a considerable See also:part of West Africa, the Algerian Sahara and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, mainly by military See also:officers. A British naval officer, See also:Commander B. Whitehouse, mapped the entire coast-line of Victoria Nyanza. Government and railway surveys apart; the See also:chief points of See also:interest for explorers during 1904—1906 were the Ruwenzori range and the connexion of the basin of Lake Chad with the Niger and Congo systems. Lieut. See also:Boyd See also: Gosling, died during the expedition. The Ruwenzori Mountains proved a great source of attraction. See also:Sir H. H. Johnston had in 1900 ascended beyond the See also:snow-line to 14,809 ft.; in 1903 Dr. J. J. See also:David had reached from the west to a height he believed to exceed 16,000 ft.; and in the same year Capt. T. T. Behrens, of the Anglo-German Uganda boundary commission, fixed the highest summit at 16,619 ft. During 1904—1906 some See also:half-dozen expeditions were at work in the region. That of the See also:duke of the Abruzzi was the most successful. In the summer of 1906 the duke or members of his party climbed all the highest peaks, none of which reaches 17,000 ft., and determined the main lines of the watershed. Major See also:Powell-See also:Cotton, a British officer who had previously done good work in Abyssinia and British East Africa, spent 1905-1906 in a detailed examination of the Lado See also:enclave and the country west of Ruwenzori and Albert and Albert Edward lakes. This expedition was specially fruitful in additions to zoological knowledge.
Archaeological See also:research, stimulated by the reports of See also: The last ten years of the 19th century also witnessed many interesting expeditions in east Central Africa. In 1891 Emin Lakes and Pasha, accompanied by Dr F. Stuhlmann, made his mountains way south of Victoria Nyanza to the western Nile ofBqua- lakes, visiting for the first time the southern and tot-1a/ western shores of Albert Edward. Stuhlmann also Africa. Work of inter-See also:national commissions and See also:surveying parties. See also:Asiatic and European invaders the Africans indeed owed many creature comforts—the introduction of See also:maize, See also:rice, the See also:sugar See also:cane, the See also:orange, the See also:lemon and the See also:lime, See also:cloves, See also:tobacco and many other See also:vegetable products, the See also:camel, the See also:horse and other animals—but invaluable to Africa as were these gifts they led to little development of commerce. The continent continued in virtual See also:isolation from the great trade movements of the world, an isolation due not so much to its poverty in Causes of natural resources, as to the special circumstances which isolation. likewise caused so large a part of the continent to remain so See also:long a terra incognita. The principal drawbacks may be summarized as: (r) the absence of means of communication with the interior; (2) the unhealthiness of the coast-lands; (3) the small productive activity of the natives; (4) the effects of the slave trade in discouraging legitimate commerce. None of these causes is necessarily permanent, that most difficult to remove being the third; the See also:negro races finding the means of existence easy have little incentive to toil. The first See also:drawback has almost disappeared, and the See also:building of See also:railways and the placing of steamers on the See also:rivers and lakes—a work continually progressing —renders it year by year easier for producer and consumer to come together. As to the second drawback, while the coast-lands in the tropics will always remain comparatively unhealthy, improved sanitation' and the destruction of the malarial See also:mosquito have rendered tolerable to Europeans regions formerly notorious for their deadly See also:climate. At various periods since the. partition of the continent began, See also:united See also:action has been taken by the powers of Europe in the interests of African trade. The See also:Berlin See also:conference of 1884–1885 decreed freedom of See also:navigation and trade on the Congo and the Niger, and the Anglo-Portuguese treaty of 1891 secured like privileges for the Zambezi. The Berlin conference likewise enacted that over a wide area of Central Africa—the conventional basin of the Congo—there should be See also:complete freedom of trade, a freedom which later on was held to be infringed in the Congo See also:State and French Congo by the granting to various companies proprietary rights in the disposal of the product of the See also:soil. More important in their effect on the economic See also:condition of the continent than the steps taken to ensure freedom of trade were the See also:measures concerted by the powers for the suppression of the slave trade. The British government had for long See also:borne the greater part of the See also:burden of combating the slave trade on the east coast of Africa and in the Indian Ocean, but the changed conditions which resulted from the See also:appearance of other European powers in Africa induced See also:Lord See also:Salisbury, then See also:foreign secretary, to address, in the autumn of 1888, an invitation to the See also: The advance in civilization among the natives, exemplified by the granting to them of political rights in such countries as Algeria and Cape See also:Colony, leads directly to increased commercial activity; and commerce increases in a much greater degree when new countries--e.g. Rhodesia and British East Africa—become the homes of Europeans. Finally, in reviewing the chief factors which govern the commercial development of the continent, See also:note must be taken of the sparsity of the See also:population over the greater part of Africa, and the efforts made to supplement the insufficient and often in-effective native labour by the introduction of Asiatic labourers in various districts—of Indian coolies in See also:Natal and elsewhere, and of See also:Chinese for the gold mines of the See also:Transvaal. The resources of Africa may be considered under the head of: (r) See also:jungle products; (2) cultivated products; (3) See also:animal pro-ducts; (4) minerals. Of the first named the most important are See also:india-See also:rubber and See also:palm-oil, which in tropical Africa See also:supply by far the largest items in the export See also:list. The rubber-producing See also:plants are found throughout the whole tropical See also:belt, and the most important are creepers of the See also:order Apocynaceae, especially various See also:species of Landolphia (with which genus Vahea is now united). In East Africa Landolphia kirkii (See also:Dyer) supplies the largest amount, though various other species are known. Forms of apparently wider See also:distribution are L. hendelotii, which is found in the See also:Bahr-el-Ghazal, and extends right across the continent to See also:Senegambia; and L. (formerly Vahea) comorensis, which, including its variety L. See also:Florida, has the widest distribution of all the species, occurring in Upper and Lower Guinea, the whole of Central Africa, the east coast, the See also:Comoro Islands and See also:Madagascar. In parts of East Africa Clitandra orientalis is a valuable rubber See also:vine. In See also:Lagos and elsewhere rubber is produced by the apocynaceous See also:tree, Funtumia elastica, and in West Africa generally by various species of Ficus, some species of which are also found in East Africa. The rubber produced is somewhat inferior to that of South See also:America, but this is largely due to careless methods of preparation. The great destruction of vines brought about by native methods of collection much reduced the supply in some districts, and rendered it necessary to take steps to preserve and cultivate the rubber-yielding plants. This has been done in many districts with usually encouraging results. Experiments have been made in the introduction of South American rubber plants, but opinions differ as to the prospects of success, as the plants in question seem to demand very definite conditions of soil and climate. The second product, palm-oil, is derived from a much more limited area than rubber, for although the oil palm is found throughout the greater part of West Africa, from ro° X. to See also:roe, S., the great bulk of the export comes from the coast districts at the head of the Gulf of Guinea. A larger supply, 1 Further conferences respecting the liquor traffic in Africa were held in Brussels in 1899 and 1906. In both instances conventions were signed by the powers, raising the minimum See also:duty on imported spirituous liquors. Chief economic resources. equal to any See also:market demand, could easily be obtained. A third valuable product is the See also:timber supplied by the forest regions, principally in West Africa. It includes African See also:teak or See also:oak (Oldfieldia africana), excellent for See also:shipbuilding; the durable odum of the Gold Coast (Chlorophora excelsa) ; African See also:mahogany (Khaya senegalensis); See also:ebony (Diospyros ebenum); camwood (Baphia nitida); and many other ornamental and dye See also:woods. The timber See also:industry on the west coast was long neglected, but since 1898 there have been large exports to Europe. In parts of East Africa the Podocar pus milanjianus, a conifer, is economically important. Valuable timber grows too in South Africa, including the yellow See also:wood (Podocarpus), stinkwood (Ocotea) , sneezewood or Cape ebony (Euclea) and See also:ironwood. Other vegetable products of importance are: See also:Gum arabic, obtained from various species of See also:acacia (especially A. See also:senegal), the chief supplies of which are obtained from Senegambia and the steppe regions of North Africa (See also:Kordofan, &c.); gum See also:copal, a valuable See also:resin produced by trees of the leguminous order, the best, known as Zanzibar or See also:Mozambique copal, coming from the East African Trachylobium hornemannianum, and also found in a fossil state under the soil; See also:kola nuts, produced chiefly in the coast-lands of Upper Guinea by a tree of the order Sterculiaceae (Kola acuminata); See also:archil or orchilla, a dye-yielding See also:lichen (Rocella tinctoria and triciformis) growing on trees and rocks in East Africa, the Congo basin, &c.; See also:cork, the bark of the cork oak, which flourishes in Algeria; and alfa, a grass used in See also:paper manufacture (Machrochloa tenacissima), growing in great abundance on the dry steppes of Algeria, Tripoli, &c. A product to which attention has been paid in Angola is the Almeidina gum or resin, derived from the juice of See also:Euphorbia tirucalli. The cultivated products include those of the tropical and warm temperate zones. Of the former, See also:coffee is perhaps the most valuable indigenous plant. It grows See also:wild in many parts, the See also:home of one species being in See also:Kaffa and other Galla countries south of Abyssinia, and of another in Liberia. The Abyssinian coffee is equal to the best produced in any other part of the world. Cultivation is, however, necessary to ensure the best results, and attention has been given to this in various European colonies. Plantations have been established in Angola, Nyasaland, German East Africa, Cameroon, the Congo See also:Free State, &c. See also:Copra, the produce of the See also:cocoa-See also:nut palm, is supplied chiefly by Zanzibar and neighbouring parts of the east coast. Ground-nuts, produced by the leguminous plant, Arachis hypogaea, are grown chiefly in West Africa, and the largest export is from Senegal and the See also:Gambia; while Bambarra ground-nuts (Voandzeia subterranea) are very generally cultivated from Guinea to Natal. Cloves are extensively grown on Zanzibar and See also:Pemba islands, Pemba being the chief source of the world's supply of cloves. The chief drawbacks to the industry are the fluctuations of the yield of the trees, and the See also:risk of over-See also:production in good seasons. Cotton grows wild in many parts of tropical Africa, and is exported in small quantities in the raw state; but the main export is from Egypt, which comes third among the world's sources of supply of the See also:article. It is also cultivated in West Africa—the industry in the Guinea coast colonies having been See also:developed since the beginning of the loth century—and in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, whence came the plants from which Egyptian cotton is grown. Sugar, which is the See also:staple See also:crop of See also:Mauritius, and in a lesser degree of See also:Reunion, is also produced in Natal, Egypt, and, to a certain extent, in Mozambique. Dates are grown in See also:Tunisia and the Saharan oases, especially Tafilet; maize in Egypt, South Africa and parts of the tropical zone; See also:wheat in Egypt, Algeria and the higher regions of Abyssinia; rice in Madagascar. See also:Wine is largely exported from Algeria, and in a much smaller quantity from Cape Colony; See also:fruit and vegetables from Algeria. Tobacco is widely grown on a small See also:scale, but, except perhaps from Algeria, has not become an important article of export, though plantations have been established in various tropical colonies. The cultivation of cocoa has proved successful in the Gold Coast, Cameroon and other colonies, and in various districts the See also:tea plant is cultivated. See also:Indigo, though not originally an African product, has become naturalized and grows wild in many parts, while it is also cultivated on a small scale. The main difficulty in the way of tropical cultivation is the labour question, which has already been referred to. Of animal products one of the most important is ivory, the largest export of which is from the Congo Free State. The diminution in the number of elephants with the opening up of the remoter districts must in time cause a falling-off in this export. Beeswax is obtained from various parts of the interior of West Africa, and from Madagascar. Raw hides are exported in large quantities from South Africa, as are also the See also:wool and See also:hair of the See also:merino See also:sheep and See also:Angora See also:goat. Both hides and wool are also exported from Algeria and Morocco, and hides from Abyssinia and Somaliland. See also:Ostrich feathers are produced chiefly by the ostrich farms of Cape Colony, but some are also obtained from the steppes to the north of the Central Sudan. Live stock, principally sheep, is exported from Algeria and See also:cattle from Morocco. The exploited minerals of Africa are confined to a few districts, the resources of the continent in this respect being largely undeveloped. Since the discovery of gold in the Transvaal, particularly in the See also:district known as the WMinea/theral ~' . See also:Rand (1885), the .output has grown enormously, so that in 1898 the output of gold from South Africa was greater than from any other gold-field in the world. The Anglo-See also:Boer See also:War of 1899–1902 lost the Rand the leading position, but by 1905 the output—in that year over so,800,000—was greater than it had ever been. The supply of gold from South Africa is roughly 25% of the world's output. The gold-yielding formations extend northwards through Rhodesia. The Gold Coast is so named from the quantity of gold obtained there, and since the close of the 19th century the industry has developed largely in the hands of Europeans. In the Galla countries gold has long been an article of native commerce. It is also found in various parts of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and along the western shore of the Red Sea. Diamonds are found in large quantities in a series of beds known as the See also:Kimberley shales, the principal mines being at Kimberley, Cape Colony. Diamonds are also found in Orange River Colony, while one of the richest See also:diamond mines in the world—the Premier—is situated in the Transvaal near Pretoria. Some 8o% of the world's production of diamonds comes from South Africa. See also:Copper is found in the west of Cape Colony, in German South-West Africa, and in the See also:Katanga country in the southern Congo basin, where vast beds of copper ore exist. There are also extensive deposits of copper in the Broken See also: See also:Coal is worked, principally for home See also:consumption, in Cape Colony, Natal, the Transvaal, Orange River Colony, and in Rhodesia in the neighbourhood of the Zambezi. Coal deposits also exist in the German territory north of Lake Nyasa. See also:Phosphates are exported from Algeria and Tunisia. Of other minerals which occur, but are little worked, See also:zinc, See also:lead and See also:antimony are found in Algeria, lead and See also:manganese in Cape Colony, See also:plumbago in Sierra Leone. The imports from foreign countries into Africa consist chiefly of manufactured goods, varying in character according to the development of the different countries in civilization. In Egypt, Algeria and South Africa they include most of the necessaries and luxuries of civilized See also:life, manufactured cotton and woollen goods, especially the former, taking the first place, but various See also:food stuffs, See also:metal goods, coal and See also:miscellaneous articles being also included. In tropical Africa, and generally where few Europeans have settled, the great bulk of the imports consists as a See also:rule of cotton goods, articles for which there is a See also:constant native demand. No continent has in the past been so lacking in means of communication as Africa, and it was only in the last decade Develop- of the 19th century that decided steps were taken to ment of remedyhese defects. The African rivers, with the means of exception of the middle Congo and its affluents, and "'"u'/' the middle course of the three other chief rivers, are `8tiO°' generally unfavourable to navigation, and throughout the tropical region almost the See also:sole routes have been native See also:foot-paths, admitting the passage of a single See also:file of porters, on whose heads all goods have been carried from place to place. Certain of these native trade routes are, however, much frequented, and lead for hundreds of miles from the coast to the interior. In the desert regions of the north transport is by caravans of camels, and in the south ox-wagons, before the See also:advent of railways, supplied the general means of locomotion. The native trade routes led generally from the centres of greatest population or production to the seaports by the nearest route, but to this rule:there was a striking exception. The dense forests of Upper Guinea and the upper Congo proved a barrier which kept the peoples of the Sudan from direct See also:access to the sea, and from See also:Timbuktu to See also:Darfur the great trade routes were either west to east or south to north across the Sahara. The principal See also:caravan routes across the desert lead from different points in Morocco and Algeria to Timbuktu; from Tripoli to Timbuktu, See also:Kano and other great marts of the western and central Sudan; from See also:Bengazi to See also:Wadai; and from See also:Assiut on the Nile through the Great See also:Oasis and the Libyan desert to Darfur. South of the See also:equator the principal long-established routes are those from See also:Loanda to the Lunda and Baluba countries; from See also:Benguella via Bihe to Urua and the upper Zambezi; from Mossamedes across the See also:Kunene to the upper Zambezi; and from See also:Bagamoyo, opposite Zanzibar, to Tanganyika. Many of the native routes have been superseded by the improved communications introduced by Europeans in the utilization of waterways and the construction of roads and railways. Steamers have been conveyed overland in sections and launched on the interior waterways above the obstructions to navigation. On the upper Nile and Albert Nyanza their introduction was due to Sir S. See also:Baker and General C. G. See also:Gordon (1871-1876) ; on the middle Congo and its affiuents to Sir H. M. Stanley and the officials of the Congo Free State, as well as to the Baptist missionaries on the river; and on Lake Nyasa to the supporters of the Scottish See also:mission. A small See also:vessel was launched on Victoria Nyanza in 1896 by a British See also:mercantile See also:firm, and a British government steamer made its first trip in November 1900. On the other great lakes and on most of the navigable rivers steamers were plying regularly before the close of the 19th century. However, the shallowness of the water in the Niger and Zambezi renders their navigation possible only to light-See also:draught steamers. Roads suitable for wheeled traffic are few. The first See also:attempt at road-making in Central Africa on a large scale was that of Sir T. Fowell See also:Buxton and Mr (after-wards Sir W.) Mackinnon, who completed the first See also:section of a track leading into the interior from See also:Dar-es-See also:Salaam (1879). A still more important undertaking was the " See also:Stevenson road," begun in 1881 from the head of Lake Nyasa to the south end of Tanganyika, and constructed mainly at the expense of Mr James Stevenson, a director of the African Lakes See also:Company—a company which helped materially in the opening up of Nyasaland. The Stevenson road forms a See also:link in the "Lakes route" into the See also:heart of the continent. In British East Africa a road connecting See also:Mombasa with Victoria Nyanza was completed in 1897, but has since been in great measure superseded by the railway. Good roads have also been made in German East Africa and Cameroon and in Madagascar. Railways, the chief means of affording easy access to the interior of the continent, were for many years after their first introduction to Africa almost entirely confined to the extreme north and south (Egypt, Algeria, Cape Colony and Natal). Apart from See also:short lines in Senegal, Angola and at Lourenco Marques, the rest of the continent was in 1890 without a railway system. In Egypt the See also:Alexandria and See also:Cairo railway dates from 1855, while in 1877 the lines open reached about 1roo miles, and in 1890, in addition to the lines traversing the See also:delta, the Nile had been ascended to Assiut. In Algeria the construction of an inter-provincial railway was decreed in 1857, but was still incomplete twenty years later, when the total length of the lines open hardly exceeded 300 miles. Before 1890 an extension to See also:Tunis had been opened, while the See also:plateau had been crossed by the lines to See also:Ain Sefra in the west and See also:Biskra in the east. In Senegal the railway from See also:Dakar to St Louis had been commenced and completed during the 'eighties, while the first section of the Senegal-Niger railway, that from Kayes to Bafulabe, was also constructed during the same decade. In Cape Colony, where in about i88o the railways were limited to the neighbourhood of Cape Town, See also:Port See also: The railway from Ain Sefra was continued south-See also: A more ambitious project was that identified with the name of See also:Cecil See also:Rhodes, namely, the extension northward of the railway from Kimberley with the See also:object of effecting a continuous railway connexion from Cape Town to Cairo. The line from Kimberley reached See also:Bulawayo in 1897. (Bulawayo is also reached from See also:Beira on the east coast by another line, completed in 1902, which goes through Portuguese territory and Mashonaland.) The extension of the line north-ward from Bulawayo was begun in 1899, the Zambezi being bridged, immediately below the Victoria Falls, in 1905. From this point the railway goes north to the Katanga district of the Congo State. In the north of the continent a step towards the completion of the Cape to Cairo route was taken in the opening in 1899 of the railway from See also:Wadi Halfa to See also:Khartum. A line of greater economic importance than the last named is the railway (completed in 1905) from Port Sudan on the Red Sea to the Nile a little south of See also:Berber, thus placing the Anglo- Egyptian Sudan within easy reach of the markets of the world. A west to east connexion across the continent by See also:rail and steamer, from the mouth of the Congo to Port Sudan, was arranged in 1906 when an agreement was entered into by the Congo and Sudan governments for the building of a railway from Lado, on the Nile, to the Congo frontier, there to meet a railway starting from the river Congo near Stanley Falls. A railway of consider-able importance is that from See also:Jibuti in the Gulf of Aden to See also:Harrar, giving access to the markets of southern Abyssinia. Besides the railways mentioned there are several others of less importance. Lines run from Loanda and other ports of Angola towards the Congo State frontier, and from See also:Tanga and Dar-es-Salaam on the coast of German East Africa towards the great lakes. In British Central Africa a railway connects Lake Nyasa with the navigable waters of the See also:Shire, and various lines have been built by the French in Madagascar. All the main railways in South Africa, the lines in British West Africa, in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and in Egypt south of See also:Luxor are of 3 ft. 6 in. See also:gauge. The main lines in Lower Egypt and in Algeria and Tunisia are of 4 ft. 81 in. gauge. Elsewhere as in French West and British East Africa the lines are of See also:metre (3.28 ft.) gauge. The telegraphic system of Africa is on the whole older than that of the railways, the newer European possessiojis having in most cases been provided with See also:telegraph lines before railway projects had been set on foot. In Algeria, Egypt and Cape Colony the systems date back to the middle of the 19th century, before the end of which the lines had in each country reached some thousands of miles. In tropical Africa the systems of French West Africa, where the line from Dakar to St Louis was begun in 1862, were the first to be fully developed, lines having been carried from different points on the coast of Senegal and Guinea towards the Niger, the main line being prolonged north-west to Timbuktu, and west and south to the coast of Dahomey. The route for a telegraph line to connect Timbuktu with Algeria was surveyed in 1905. The Congo region is furnished with several telegraphic systems, the longest going from the mouth of the river to Lake Tanganyika. From See also:Ujiji on the east coast of that lake there is telegraphic communication via Tabora with Dar-es-Salaam and via Nyasa and Rhodesia with Cape Town. The last-named line is the longest link in the trans-See also:continental line first suggested in 1876 by Sir (then Mr) See also:Edwin See also:Arnold and afterwards taken up by Cecil Rhodes. The northern link from Egypt to Khartum has been continued southward to Uganda, while another line connects Uganda with Mombasa. At the principal seaports the inland systems are connected with sub-marine cables which place Africa in telegraphic communication with the rest of the world.
Numerous steamship lines run from Great See also:Britain, See also:Germany, France and other countries to the African seaports, the journey from any place in western Europe to any port on the African coast occupying, by the shortest route, not more than three See also:weeks. (E. HE., F. R. C.)
§ I. General Descriptions.—(a) See also:Ancient and Medieval. See also:Herodotus, ed. G. See also:Rawlinson, 4 vols.' (188o); See also:Ptolemy's Geographia, ed. C. See also: (See also:Paris, 1883–1901); See also:Ibn Haukal, " Description de l'Afrique " (trans'. McG. de Slane), Nouv. See also:Journal asiatique, 1842; Edrisi, " Geographie " (transl. See also:Jaubert), Rec. de voyages . See also:Soc. de Giogr. vol. v. (Paris, 1836); See also:Abulfeda, Geographic (trans'. See also:Reinaud and Guyard, Paris, 1848–1883) ; M. A. P. d'Avezac, Description de l'Afrique ancienne (Paris, 1845) ; L. de Marmol, Description general de Africa (See also:Granada, 1573) ; L. See also:Sanuto, Geografia dell' Africa (See also:Venice, 1588); F. Pigafetta, A See also:Report of the Kingdom of Congo, &c. (1597); See also:Leo See also:Africanus, The History and Description of Africa (trans'. J. Pory, ed. R. See also: Barbot, " Description of the Coasts of North and South Guinea and of Ethiopia Inferior," See also:Churchill's Voyages, vol. v. (1707); W. Bosman, A New . Description of the Coasts of Guinea, &c., 2nd ed. (1721); J. B. Labat, Nouvelle relation de l'Afrique occidentale, 5 vols. (Paris, 1728) ; Idem, Relation historique de l'Ethiopie occidentale, 5 vols. (Paris, 1732). (b) See also:Modern. B. d'Anville, Memoire conc. See also:les rivieres de l'interieur de l'Afrique (Paris, n.d.) ; M. Vollkommer, See also:Die Quellen B. d'Anaille's See also:fur See also:seine kritische Karte von Afrika (See also:Munich, 1904) ; C. See also:Ritter, Die Erdkunde, i. Theil, 1. See also:Buch, "Afrika " (Berlin, 1822) ; J. M'See also:Queen, Geographical and Commercial View of Northern and Central Africa (See also:Edinburgh, 1821) ; Idem, Geographical Survey of Africa (184o) ; W. D. Cooley, Inner Africa laid open (1852) ; E. See also:Reclus, Nouvelle geographie universelle, vols. x.-xiii. (1885–1888); A. H. See also:Keane, Africa (in See also:Stanford's Compendium), 2 vols., 2nd ed. (19o4–1907); F. See also:Hahn and W. Sievers, Afrika, 2. Aufl. (See also:Leipzig, 1901); M. Fallex and A. Mairey, L'Afrique au debut du XXe siecle (Paris, 1906) ; Sir C. P. See also:Lucas, See also:Historical See also:Geography of the British Colonies, vols. iii. and iv. (See also:Oxford, 1894, 1904) ; F. D. and A. J. Herbertson, Descriptive Geographies from See also:Original Sources: Africa (1902) ; British Africa (The British See also:Empire Series, vol. ii., 1899) ; Journal of the African Society; Comite de l'Afrique francaise, Bulletin, Paris; MitteilungenNder afrikan. Gesellschaft in Deutschland (Berlin, 1879–1889) ; Mitteilungen . . . aus den deutschen Schutzegebieten (Berlin) ; H. See also:Schirmer, Le Sahara (Paris, 1893) ; See also:Mary H. See also:Kingsley, West African Studies, 2nd ed. (1901); J. See also:Bryce, Impressions of South Africa (1897); Sir Harry Johnston, The Uganda See also:Protectorate, 2 vols. (1902) (vol. i1. is devoted to See also:anthropology) ; E. D. See also:Morel, A fairs of West Africa (1902). § II. Geography (See also:Physical), See also:Geology, Climate, See also:Flora and See also:Fauna.—(For Descriptive Geogr. see § I.)—G. Giirich, " Uberblick fiber den geolog. Bau See also:des afr. Kontinents," Peterm. Mitt., 1887; A. See also:Knox, Notes on the Geology of the Continent of Africa (1906) (includes a bibliography) ; L. von Hanel, A. Rosiwal, F. Toula and E. See also:Suess, Beitrage zur geologischenKenntniss des ostlichenAfrika (See also:Vienna, 1891) ; E. Stromer, Die Geologie der deutschen Schutzgebieten in Afrika (Munich, 1896) ; J. Chavanne, Afrika See also:im Lichte unserer Tage: Bodengestalt, &c. (Vienna, 1881); F. Heidrich, " Die mittlere Hohe Afrikas," Peterm. Mitt., 1888; J. W. Gregory, The Great Rift-Valley (1896); H. G. See also:Lyons, The Physiography of the River Nile and its Basin (Cairo, 1906); S. Passarage, Die See also:Kalahari: Versuch einer physischgeogr. Darstellung . . . des siidafr. Beckens (Berlin. 1904) ; Idem, " Inselberglandschaften im tropischen Afrika," Nature,. Wochenschrift, 1904. 654-665; J. E. S. See also:Moore, The Tanganyika Problem (1903) ; W. H. Hudleston, " On the Origin of the Marine (Halolimnic) Fauna of Lake Tanganyika," Journ. of Trans. Victoria Inst., 1904, 300-351 (discusses the whole question of the See also:geological history of equatorial Africa) ; E. Stromer, " Ist der Tanganyika eir, Relikten-See?" Peterm. Mitt., 1901, 275-278; E. Kohlschiitter " Die . . . Arbeiten der Pendelexpedition . . . in See also:Deutsch-Ost-Afrika,' Verh. Deuts. Geographentages See also:Breslau, 1901, 133-153; J. See also:Cornet "La geologie du bassin du Congo," See also:Bull. Soc. Beige geol., 1898 E. G. Ravenstein, "The Climatology of Africa " (ten reports), Reports Brit. Association, 1892–1901; Idem, " Climatologica Observations . . . I. Tropical Africa " (1904) ; H. G. Lyons, " Or the Relations between See also:Variations of Atmospheric Pressure . . . anc' the Nile See also:Flood," Proc. See also:Roy. Soc., See also:Ser. A, vol. lxxvi., 1905; P. Reichard, " Zur Frage der Austrocknung Afrikas," Geogr. Zeitschrift, 1895; J. See also:Hoffmann, " Die tiefsten Temperaturen auf den Hochlandern," &c., Peterm. Mitt., 1905; G. Fraunberger, " Studien fiber die jahrlichen Niederschlagsmengen des afrik. Kontinents," Peterm. Mitt., 1906; D. See also:Oliver and Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, Flora of Tropical Africa, to vols. (1888–1906); K. See also:Oschatz, Anordnung der Vegetation in Afrika (See also:Erlangen, 1900) ; A. Engler, Hochgebirgsflora des tropischen Afrika (Berlin, 1892); Idem, Die Pfllanzenwelt Ostafrikas and der Nachbargebiete, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1895) ; Idem, Beitrage zur Flora von Afrika (Engler's Bolan. Jahrbiicher, 14 vols. &c.) ; W. P. Hiern, See also:Catalogue of the African Plants collected by Dr See also:Friedrich Welwitsch in 1853–1861, 2 vols. (1896–1901) ; R. Schlechter, Westafrikanische Kautschuk-Expedition (Berlin, 1900) ; H. Baum, Kunene-Sambesi-Expedition (Berlin, 1903) (largely concerned with See also:botany) ; W. L. Sclater, " Geography of Mammals, No. iv. The Ethiopian Region," Geog. Journal, See also: The latest results of geographical research and a bibliography of current literature are given in the Geographical Journal, published monthly by the Royal Geographical Society. § III. See also:Ethnology.—H. See also:Hartmann, Die Volker Afrikas (Leipzig, 1879) ; B. Ankermann, " Kulturkreise in Afrika, ' Zeit. f. Eth., vol. See also:xxxvii. p. 54; Idem," Ober den gegenwartigen Stand der Ethnographie der Siidhalfte Afrikas," See also:Arch. f. Anth. n.f. iv. p. 24;G.Ser. i. Antropologia della stirpe camitica (See also:Turin, 1897) ; J. See also:Deniker, Distribution geogr. et caracteres physiques des Pygmees africains," La Geographie, Paris, vol. viii. pp. 213-220; G. W. See also:Stow and G. M. Theal,The Native Races of South Africa (1905); K. Barthel, Vblkerbewegungen auf der Siidhalfte des afrik. Kontinents (Leipzig, 1893); A. B. See also:Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast (1887) ; Idem, The See also:Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (189o); Idem, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (1894); H. See also:Ling See also:Roth, Great See also:Benin, its Customs, &c. (See also:Halifax, 1903); H. Frobenius, Die Ileiden-Neger des agyptischen.Sudan (Berlin, 1893) ; See also:Herbert See also:Spencer and D. See also:Duncan, Descriptive See also:Sociology, vol. iv. African Races (1875); A. de Preville, Les Societes africaines (Paris, 1894) ; D. See also:Macdonald, Africana; or, the Heart of See also:Heathen Africa, 2 vols. (1882) ; L. Frobenius, Der Ursprung der afrikanischen Kulturen (Der Ursprung der Kutur, See also:Band i.) (Berlin, 1898); Idem, " Die Masker and Geheimbunde Afrikas," Abhandl. Kaiserl. Leopoldin.-Carolin. Deuts. Akad. Naturforscher, 1899, 1-278; G. Schweinfurth, See also:Arles africanae: Illustrations and Descriptions of . See also:industrial Arts, &c. (in German and English) (Leipzig, 1875); F. Ratzel, Die afrikanischen Bogen eine anthrop.-geographische Studie (Leipzig, 1891); K. Weule, Der afrikanische Pfeil (Leipzig, 1899); H. Frobenius, Afrikanische Bautypen (Dauchau bei Munchen, 1894); H. Schurtz, Die afrikan. Gewerbe (Leipzig, 1900) ; E. W. Blyden, See also:Christianity, See also:Islam and the Negro See also:Race (1887); James See also: (1883) ; F. W. See also:Kolbe, A See also:Language Study based on See also:Bantu (1888); J. T. Last, Polyglotta Africana orientalis (1885); J. Torrend, Comparative Grammar of the South African Bantu Languages (1891); S. W. Koelle, Polyglotta Africana (1854); C. Velten, Schilderungen der Sunheli von Expeditionen v. Wissmanns, &c., &c. (1901) (narratives taken down from the mouths of natives) ; A. Vierkandt, Volksgedichte im westlichen Central-A frika (Leipzig, 1895). For latest information the following See also:periodicals should be consulted: Journal of the Anthropological See also:Institute of Great Britain and See also:Ireland; See also:Man (same publishers) ; Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie; Archie f. Anthropologie; L'Anthropologie. § IV. See also:Archaeology and See also:Art.—Publications of the Egyptian Exploration Fund; A. See also:Mariette-See also:Bey, The Monuments of Upper Egypt (1890); H. See also:Brugsch, Die Agyptologie (Leipzig, 1891); G. See also:Maspero, L' Archiologie egyptienne (Paris, 1890?); R. See also:Lepsius, Denkmaler aus Agypten and Athiopien ., 6 vols. (Berlin, 1849-1859) ; G. A. See also:Hoskins, Travels in Ethiopia . illustrating the Antiquities of the Ancient Kingdom of Meroe (1835) ; Records of the Past: being English See also:Translations of . . . Egyptian Monuments, vols. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 (1873–1881) ; See also:Ditto, new series, 6 vols. (1890-1892) ; D. Randall-Maclver and A. Wilkin, Libyan Notes (1901) (archaeology and ethnology of North Africa) ; G. See also:Boissier, L'Afrique romaine: Promenades archeologiques en Algerie et en Tunisie, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1901) ; D. Randall-Maclver, Mediaeval Rhodesia (1906) ; Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire de fart igyptien d'apres les monuments, &c. with atlas (Paris, 1879); G. See also:Perrot and C. Chipiez, History of Art in Ancient Egypt, 2 vols. (1883); H. See also:Wallis, Egyptian Ceramic Art (1900); C. H. Read and O. M. See also:Dalton, Antiquities from the City of Benin and from other parts of West Africa (1899).
§ V. Travel and Exploration.—See also:Dean W. See also:Vincent, The Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients, vol. 2, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1807); G. E. de See also:Azurara, See also:Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea (Eng. trans., 2 vols., 1896, 1899) ; R. H. Major, Life of See also:Prince See also: G. Ravenstein, " The Voyages of Diogo Cao and See also:Barth. See also:Diaz," Geogr. Journ., Dec. 1900; 0. See also:Hartig, " Altere Entdeckungsgeschichte and Kartographie Afrikas," Mitt. Geogr. Gesells. Wien, 1905; J. See also:Leyden and H. See also: E. See also:Bowditch, Account of the Discoveries of the Portuguese in the Interior of Angola and Mozambique (1824); P. Paulitschke, Die geogr. Forschung des afrikan. Continents (Vienna, 1880) ; A. Supan, " Ein Jahrhundert der Afrika-Forschung," Peterm. Mitt., 1888; R. Brown, The See also:Story of Africa and its Explorers, 4 vols. (1892–1895); Sir Harry Johnston, The Nile Quest (1903); James Bruce, Travels to discover the Source of the Nile in 1768–1773, 5 vols., Edinburgh (1790); Proceedings of the Association for Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa, 1790–1810; Mungo See also:Park, Travels into the Interior Districts of Africa (1799) ; Idem, Journal of a Mission, &c. (1815) ; Capt. J. K. Tuckey, Narrative of an Expedition to explore the River See also:Zaire or Congo in 1816 (1818); D. See also:Denham and H. See also:Clapperton, Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in N. and Cent. Africa (1826) ; R. Caillie, Journal d'un voyage a Temboctu et a See also:Jenne, 3 vols., Paris (183o); D. See also:Livingstone, Missionary Travels . . in South Africa (1857); The Last See also:Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa, ed. H. See also:Waller (1874); H. Barth, Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa, 5 vols. (1857); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches, &'c., in Eastern Africa (186o); Sir R. F. See also:Burton, The Lake Regions of Central Africa, 2 vols. 086o); J. H. Speke, Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (1863); Sir S. W. Baker, The Albert Nyanza, 2 vols. (1866); G. Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa, 2 vols. (1873); V. L. See also:Cameron, Across Africa, 2 vols. (1877); T. See also:Baines, The Gold Regions of South-Eastern Africa (1877) ; Sir H. M. Stanley, Through the Dark Continent,2 vols. (1878) ; Idem; In Darkest Africa, z vols. (189o) ; G. See also:Nachtigal, Sahara and Sudan, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1879–1889) ; P. S. de Brazza, Les Voyages de . (1875–1882), Paris, 1884; J. Thomson, Through Masai Land (1885) ; H. von Wissmann, Unier Deutsche?' Flagge quer durch Afrika, &c. (Berlin, 1889) ; Idem, My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa (1891); W. See also:Junker, Travels in Africa 1875–1886, 3 vols. (1890–189; L. G. Binger, Du Niger au Golfe de Guinee, &c. (Paris, 1892) ; O. Baumann, Durch Masailand zur Nilquelle (Berlin, 1894) ; R. Kandt, Caput Nili (Berlin, 1904) C. A. von Gotzen, Durch Afrika von Ost nach West (Berlin, 1896) ; L. Vanutelli and C. Citerni, Seconda spedizione Bottego: L'Omo (Milan, 1899) F. Foureau, D'See also:Alger au Congo See also:par le Tchad (Paris, 1902); C. Lemaire, Mission scientifique du Ka-Tanga: Journal de route, I vol., Resultats des observations, 16 parts (Brussels, 1902) ; A. St. H. Gibbons, Africa from South to North through Marotseland, 2 vols. (1904) ; E. Lenfant, La Grande Route du Tchad (Paris, 1905) ; Boyd Alexander, From the Niger to the Nile, 2 vols. (1907). § VI. Historical and Political.—H.Schurtz, Africa(World's History, vol. 3, part 3) (1903) ; Sir H. H. Johnston, History of the Colonization of Africa by See also:Alien Races (See also:Cambridge, 1899) (reprint with additional See also:chapter " Latest Developments," 1905) ; A. H. L. See also:Heeren, Reflections on the Politics, Intercourse and Trade of the Ancient Nations of Africa, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1832); G. Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt (1881) ; A. See also:Graham, Roman Africa (1902) ; J. de See also:Barros, See also:Asia: Ira Decada, See also:Lisbon (1552 and 1777–1778); J. Strandes, Die Portu- giesenzeit von . Ostafrika (Berlin, 1899) ; R. Schuck, See also:Brandenburg- Preussens Kolonial-Politik 1641–1721, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1889); G. M'See also:Call Theal, History and Ethnography of Africa south of the Zambesi . to 1795:3 vols. (1908– ), and History of South Africa since See also:September 1795 (to 1872) 5 vols. (1908); Idem, Records of South-Eastern Africa, 9 vols., 1898–1903; See also:Lady See also:Lugard, A Tropical Dependency: Outline of the History of the Western Sudan, &c. (1905) ; Sir E. Hertslet, The Map of Africa by Treaty, 3 vols. (3rd ed., 1909) ; J. S. Keltie, The Partition of Africa, 2nd ed. (1895) ; F. See also:Van Ortroy, Conventions internationales defnissant les limites . en Afrique (Brussels, 1898) ; General Act of the Conference of Berlin, 1885 The Surveys and Explorations of British Africa (Colonial Reports, No. 500) (1906), and See also:annual reports thereafter; Sir F. D. Lugard, The Rise of our East African Empire, 2 vols. (1893); E. See also:Petit, Les colonies francaises, 2 vols. (Paris, 1902–1904); E. Rouard de Card. Les Traites de protectoral conclus par la France en Afrique, 187o–189c (Paris, 1897); A. J. de Araujo, Coloniesportuguaises d,'Afriyue (Lisbon, 1900) ; B.Trognitz, " Neue Arealhestimmung des Continents Afrika," Petermanns Mitt., '893, 220-221; A. Supan, " Die Bevclkerung der Erde," xii., Peterm. Mitt. Erganzungsh. 146 ("See also:Gotha, 1904) (deals with areas as well as population). § VII. Commerce and See also:Economics.—A. See also:Silva White, The Development of Africa, 2nd ed. (1892); K. See also:Dove, Grundzuge einer Wirtschaftsgeographie Afrikas,' Geographische Zeitschrift, 1905, 1-18; E. Hahn, ' Die Stellung Afrikas in der Geschichte des Welthandels," Verhandl. 11. Deutsch. Geographentags zu See also:Bremen (Berlin, 1896) ; L. de Launay, Les Richesses minerales de l'Afrique (Paris, 1903) ; K. Futterer, Afr"ika in seiner Bedeutung fur die Goldproduktion (Berlin, 1894) ; P. Reichard, Das afrikan. Elfenbein and sein See also:Handel," Deutsche geogr. Bldtter (Bremen, 1889) ; Sir A. Moloney, Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa (1887) ; Dewevre, " Les Caoutchoucs africains," See also:Ann. Soc. Sci. Bruxelles, 1895; Sir T. F. Buxton, The African Slave Trade and its Remedy (184o); C. M. A. See also:Lavigerie, L'Esdavage africain (Paris, 1888) ; E. de Renty, Les Chemins de fer coloniaux en Afrique, 3 vols. (Paris, 1903–19o5); H. Meyer, Die Eisenbahnen im tropischen Afrika (Leipzig, 1902); G. Grenfell, " The Upper Congo as a Waterway," Geogr. Journ., Nov. 1902; A. St. H. Gibbons, The Nile and Zambezi Systems as Waterways," Journ. R. See also:Colon. Inst., 1901; K. See also:Lent, " Verkehrsmittel in Ostafrika," Deutsches Kolonialblatt, 1894; " Trade of the United Kingdom with the African Continent in 1898–1902," See also:Board of T. Journ., 1903; See also:Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Annual Series; Colonial Reports; T. H. Parke, See also:Guide to See also:Health in Africa (1893); R. W. Felkin, Geographical Distribution of Tropical Diseases in Africa (1895). The following See also:bibliographies may also be consulted: J. See also:Gay, Bibliographie des ouvrages relatifs a l'Afrique, &c. (See also:San Remo, 1875); P. Paulitschke, Die Afrika-Literatur von Isoo bis 1750 (See also:Vienne, 1882) ; Catalogue of the Colonial See also:Office Library, vol. 3 Africa (specially for government publications). (E. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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