See also:

• ALGERIA
• ALGERIA (Algerie)

From See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

The Great, or Saharan Atlas contains some of the highest points in the country. The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

Most 1 The name " Great " Atlas is more correctly applied to the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

The Seybuse (about 150 M. long), formed by the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

The Harrach (40 m.), a picturesque stream, enters the Mediterranean in the Bay of Algiers. The Mazafran (5o m.) crosses the plains S.W of Algiers, reaching the sea N. of Kolea. The Mejerda and its affluent the Mellegue, rivers of Tunisia (q.v.), have their rise in Algeria, in the mountainous country east of Constantine. None of these rivers is navigable. Besides these there are a number of streams in the interior, but they are usually dry except in the rainy season. Algeria abounds in extensive salt lakes and marshes. Of the lakes in the northern part of the country near the coast the principal are,—the Fezara, 14 m. S.W. of Bona ; Sebkha and El Melah, south of Oran; and three small lakes in the immediate vicinity of La Calle. In the high plateaus are the Shat-el-Gharbi or Western Shat, the Shat-el-Shergui or Eastern Shat, the Zarhez-Gharbi and the Zarhez-Shergui, the Shat-el-Hodna and a number _ of others. South of the Jebel Aures is another See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

One of the most remarkable See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

They consist of See also:

• GNEISS

Rocks of Upper Cretaceous See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

Among the Tertiary volcanic rocks those of See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

On the plateaus the temperature passes from one extreme to the other, and rain seldom falls. (For the climate of the Saharan region see SAHARA.) Throughout Algeria, especially in the summer, there is a great difference between See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

Of birds, eagles, vultures, See also:

• HAWKS, FRANCIS LISTER (1798-1866)

The flora of the high plateaus consists chiefly of See also:

• GRASSES

The See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

(6) A few See also:

• TUAREG, or TAWAREK (more properly Tawarik, the collective form of tarki, from Arabic terek, to give up)

The Jews, who enjoyed religious freedom under the Mahommedans, believed that the success of the Spaniards would but See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

In the vicinity are the famous quarries of Numidian See also:

• MARBLES

Twenty miles by sea west of Philippeville is Collo (2258), a See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

Miliana (3991), which occupies the site of the Roman Milliana, lies about midway between Blida and Orleansville, is 2400 f t. above the sea, and is built on a plateau of the Zakkar mountains, commanding magnificent views of the valley of the Shelif. It possesses few remains of antiquity. An old Moorish See also:

• MINARET (from the Arabic mandrat ; manar or miner is Arabic for a lighthouse, a tower on which liar, fire, is lit)

From this it appears that the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

The walls of the Roman city, restored probably by the Byzantines, have been incorporated in the French walls, which are pierced by four gates. Batna (5279), a walled town 3350 ft. above the sea, 50 M. S. of Constantine by the railway to Biskra, commands the passage of the Aures mountains by which the nomads of the Sahara were wont to enter the Tell. Its importance rests on its strategic position. On the railway between Constantine and Bona and 76 m. from the latter, is Guelma (6584), the Roman Kalama, finely situated on the right bank of the Seybuse. The French occupied the place in 1836 and built their town out of the Roman ruins. See also:

• THIRTY

One See also:

• HUNDRED

4916), an active trading centre. Guerrara, one of the two isolated oases, 37 M. N.E. of Ghardaia, contains a flourishing commercial town with 1912 inhabitants. The See also:

• CARAVAN (more correctly Karwan)

The Kubr-er-Rumia—best known by its French name, Tombeau de la Chretienne, tradition making it the See also:

• BURIAL

The larger of the two chambers is 141 ft. long by T r ft. broad and r r ft. high. The other chamber is somewhat smaller. The tomb was early violated, probably in See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

Many of the columns, 6o in number, have been much damaged. When the sepulchral chamber was opened in 1873 by Bauchetet, a French engineer officer, clear See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

The soil of Algeria everywhere favours the growth of the See also:

• VINE

Minerals.—Algeria is rich in minerals, found chiefly in the department of Constantine, where iron, lead and See also:

• ZINC

The average number of vessels entering and clearing Algerian ports each year has been, since 1900, about 4000, with a total See also:

• TONNAGE

The import of wool exceeds the export. Sugar, See also:

• COFFEE (Fr: cafe, Ger. Kaffee)

82 in.; a few " See also:

• LIGHT

At the same time the See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

The decree of 1896, which was of a provisional character, was replaced by another, dated the 23rd of August 1898, defining the powers of the governor-general under the new scheme. By a law of the 19th of December 1900, Algeria was constituted a legal See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

The governor-general is assisted by: (r) The Council of Government, a purely advisory body, composed entirely of high officials; (2) A See also:

• SUPERIOR

Communes are of three kinds: (r) those with full powers, (2) mixed, (3) native. In those of the first kind, modelled on the French communes, the Mahommedans possess the municipal franchise. The " mixed " communes are under an See also:

• ADMINISTRATOR

See also:

• FINANCE

Land See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

The result has been disappointing. For the most part, the Arab tribes have been reluctant to avail themselves of their new powers, and where they have done so the hasty reversal of the traditions of centuries has proved demoralizing to the natives, without any sufficient See also:

• EQUIVALENT

When the interests of colonization required it, free gifts of land might be made; in which case the grantee must himself exploit his concession. In no case might land acquired under this scheme be let to natives until after the expiration of ten years. For the purpose of creating villages, land was put at the disposition of See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

There arealso tribunals of commerce and justices of the See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

Few Moslems attend the secondary schools. Purely Mahommedan higher schools exist at Algiers, Tlemcen and Constantine. From these establishments the ranks of native officials are recruited. There is one secondary school for Moslem girls. The education provided for Europeans resembles in most respects that given in France. (The lycees at Algiers, Oran and Constantine are open to Mahommedans, but few take See also:

• ADVANTAGE

C.) HISTORY From a See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

Two nations, then at the height of their power, Spain and See also:

• TURKEY

These two towns, taken by the Turks in 1708 and retaken by the Spaniards in 1732, were finally abandoned in 1791. Under the Turkish dominion Algeria had originally at its head a beylerbey resident at Algiers. He controlled three beys:—Barbary the See also:

• BEY (a modern Turk. word, the older form being beg, cf. Pers. baig)

The relations which the European powers were able to maintain with northern Africa were at that time difficult and uncertain. See also:

• SHIPS

The minister of war, the duc de Clermont-See also:

• TONNERRE

The French government—fearing to displease the other powers by following up its conquest, and hampered in particular by its engagements towards See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

The period of uncertainty was prolonged under his successors, General See also:

• PIERRE

At Bona, where General See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

Such was the situation at the period when, the French having at last resolved to keep Algeria, the See also:

• ORDINANCE
• ORDINANCE, or ORDONNANCE

He marched against the amir, defeated him and entered Mascara. Then he proceeded to deliver the inhabitants of Tlemcen, who had been attacked by Abd-el-Kader, and there he left a garrison. Turning towards the east, Clausel organized at Bona the first expedition against Constantine. This failed, and the only result of it was the occupation of Guelma. Clausel was recalled and replaced by General C. M. D. Damremont (February 1837). The task of maintaining the position of France was then divided between See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

This was a See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

Marshal Wee marched against Abd-el-Kader, and at first gained some successes: the French occupied Cherchel, Medea and Miliana. But at the end of 184o Valee was recalled and replaced by Bugeaud, who adopted totally different tactics. The system of Marshal Valee had been the defensive: he multiplied the fortified posts in order to draw the enemy to a spot chosen beforehand. Bugeaud resolutely adopted the offensive, reduced the See also:

• WEIGHT

See also:

• ISLAM

Having failed to persuade the French government to adopt his plans of military colonization, he had retired in June 1847 and had been replaced by the duc d'Aumale. The surrender of Abd-el-Kader marks the end of the perioa of the conquest. It is true that Great Kabylia had to be subdued only ten years later, and that terrible insurrections still had to be quelled. But at the end of the reign of Louis Philippe the essential work was accomplished. All that remained was to complete and to secure it. Under the second republic Algeria was governed successively by Generals L. E. See also:

• CAVAIGNAC, JEAN BAPTISTE (1762–1829)
• CAVAIGNAC, LOUIS EUGENE (1802–1857)

The policy followed at this period consisted in assimilating Algeria to France. Important efforts were made to attract French colonists to the country, the colonization of Algeria appearing as a means towards the extinction of See also:

• PAUPERISM (Lat. pauper, poor)

Henceforth matters remained quiet in the region of the Sahara, and Marshal Randon turned his efforts towards Kabylia. Neither the Romans nor the Turks had been able to subdue this square mountainous See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

At this period the conception of the Arab See also:

• KINGDOM

The causes of this insurrection were manifold, and, moreover, interdependent: the injury done to the military See also:

• PRESTIGE

Under the third republic Algeria was governed successively by See also:

• ADMIRAL

P. Revoil (June 1901 to April 1903), and again Jonnart. During the first years of the new regime a keen reaction was produced against the political system of the imperial government in Africa. The civil territory was considerably enlarged at the expense of the military. An effort was made to attract French colonists to. Algeria by gratuitous concessions of land. Some lands were granted in particular to natives of See also:

• ALSACE (Ger. Elsass)

The system of rattachement was in great part abandoned, and decentralization was obtained by augmenting the powers of the governor-general, and by granting to Algeria legal personality and a special budget (see above, Central Government). These reforms appear to have given See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

The attempts at penetration into the extreme south, abandoned after the massacre by Tuareg of a See also:

• MISSION

See also:

• ROLLAND, JOHN (fl. 1560)

Depont and X. Coppolani, Les Confriries religieuses musulmanes (Algiers, 1897), and See also:

• CARTE, THOMAS (1686-1754)