See also:

• TEBESSA (the Roman Theveste)

An inscription on the See also:

• FRIEZE

The whole of the basilica and its dependencies have been cleared and are kept in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

Rapidity of See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

The foregoing See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

Much of the diversity of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

Hence has arisen a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

The study of See also:

• FOREIGN

But recently in all civilized countries, the effort has been made to provide a general and specialized education adapted to different pursuits for each of these great classes of workers: (r) operatives, (2) foremen and overseers, (3) masters and managers. r. Workmen.—Many attempts have been made to provide a substitute for apprenticeship, but hitherto with no great success. Two classes of workpeople have to be considered—(r) those engaged in manufacturing industries, and (2) those engaged in handicraft industries. The education of all classes of workpeople begins in the public elementary schools; and, in view of the future occupation of the children, it may be taken for granted that See also:

• PRIMARY

Modelling is taught both to boys and girls in many See also:

• CONTINENTAL

In England evening technical instruction is more systematically organized than in any other country. It is under the general direction of the Board of Education, and of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

For those engaged in handicraft trades this evening instruction is equally valuable, and not only in England, but equally in other parts of Europe, there exist evening trade schools in which the workman is able to supplement the " sectional " practice he acquires in the shop by more general practice in other branches of his trade. In See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

For many years a society of See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

It is only in certain cases that apprenticeship schools can be said to See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

How then are foremen to be trained? The problem is somewhat easier than that of training workmen, because the number required is fewer. The variety of schools in Europe devoted to this purpose is very great. There are three distinct ways in which foremen are being trained. (a) The evening technical classes in Britain and on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

The course lasts three years, and the students spend from six to seven See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

Such schools, under varied forms, have been established in most See also:

• EUROPEAN

The instruction in these German schools is not so practical as in the schools of France. Drawing is always well taught, and the schools generally contain good chemical laboratories, as well as collections of See also:

• PHYSICAL

in U. s. The whole subject of manual training is more scientifically See also:

• DEVELOPED

In Germany the technische Hochschule or Polytechnicum is an institution of university type in which the education has special reference to industrial purposes. In many respects the teaching coincides with that given in the universities. The chief dis- tinction consists in the arrangement of courses of instruction in the EDUCATION 491 several departments, in the admission of students having a non-classical preliminary training, and in the absence of certain faculties found in the university and the addition of others. It is not correct to say that the technical high school is a professional school as distinguished from the university; for the faculties of See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

In the engineering department there are several distinct courses of lectures under the direction of professors who are experts in their special subject. The largest of all these institutions is that of Berlin, which was completed in 1884 at a cost of about £450,000. It is situated in what was a suburb of Berlin, and is generally known as the See also:

• CHARLOTTENBURG

In Switzerland the federal See also:

• POLYTECHNIC (Gr. aroWus, many, and rEXvn, an art)

It is estimated that the pupils between the ages of fourteen and eighteen in attendance at these schools constitute at least one per cent. of the entire See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

This system allows considerable freedom to the teacher, and is said by competent See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

As indicating the practical character of the teaching in this and in other similar schools, it should be noted that the railway companies co-operate in making provision for tests on a large scale, and in permitting the use of locomotives on their line for the purpose of giving practical training to the students. At Columbia University, New York, the school of applied science was established in 1864, and consists of a fairly complete school of technology with a four years' course of instruction. An interesting department at Columbia is the professorial school for the study of education and the training of teachers. The importance of manual training is recognized by the fact that the professor of this subject has a seat in the faculty of applied science. Two schools of observation and practice are maintained—the See also:

• HORACE [QuINTus HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.)

In See also:

• BIRMINGHAM

The Birmingham University, covering an area of over twenty-five acres, contains blocks of buildings devoted to the teaching of mining and engineering, and at Sheffield there is a special school dealing with the metallurgy of iron and steel. The University of Manchester soon after its incorporation entered into arrangements with the municipal school of technology in that city, by which the faculty of technology was in part carried on in the well-equipped buildings of the municipal school, the largest institution of the kind in Great Britain. It was publicly opened in the year 1902. In these new universities ample provision is made for the teaching of electrical engineering and electro-technics generally, and the laboratories provided for this purpose are well equipped with machinery and apparatus, and compare not unfavourably with some of the most recently erected in Germany. Schools for mining engineers have been established at See also:

• WIGAN

Soon The Un1- after the reorganization of the University of London in varsity 1901, by which that institution was changed from an London. examining body into a teaching university, University College and King's College, which were named in the charter as schools of the university, transferred their funds, buildings, &c., to the university and became incorporated therein. The East London College, originally founded as a technical school in connexion with the People's See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

In See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

The bill was read a second time on 9th of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

This belief arose from the difficulty of devising means for securing equal advantages to both classes of elementary schools, and from the general unwillingness to extend school board authority beyond the limits of elementary instruction. No reference was made to technical education in the See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

The act conferred similar powers on certain boroughs, according to their population, which were known as county boroughs. By utilizing these county municipal bodies for educational purposes the necessity of entrusting technical instruction to school boards was avoided; and accordingly, on the 24th of July 1889, the government introduced into the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

With the funds supplied by the Company and the Institute the committee were enabled to try some interesting educational experiments. Six centres for workshop instruction were equipped, and children were received into the classes from voluntary and board school. A scheme of instruction was prepared with the object of bringing into prominence the disciplinary character of the teaching, and of distinguishing it from the See also:

• RULE

The rate available under the act was limited to one See also:

• PENNY (Mid. Eng. peni or peny, from O. Eng. form penig, earlier penning and pending; the word appears in Ger. Pfennig and Du. penning; it has been connected with Du. pand, Ger. Pfand, and Eng. " pawn,". the word meaning a little pledge or token, or with G
• PENNY, GIANFRANCESCO (1488–1528)

The creation of these educational authorities, with functions, however, limited to technical instruction, marks the most important step in the organization of education since the establishment of school boards. By special minutes of the Science and Art Department new subjects were from time to time included under the term cum- " technical," and the definition of technical education co/um. was gradually widened. Among the subjects first added to the list were those included in the " programme of technological examinations " of the City and Guilds of London Institute, and the teaching of technology, as distinct from science, was thus for the first time officially recognized and aided by grants from public funds. Later, commercial subjects and modern languages, the theory and practice of agriculture, and the arts and crafts underlying various cottage industries were accepted as branches of technical instruction; and whilst, on the one hand, the definition was so widened as to include nearly all that is comprised in the curriculum of a secondary school, the teaching of certain technological subjects approached so near to trade teaching that the provision excluding " the practice of any trade or industry or employment " from the teaching sanctioned by the act appeared likely to be overlooked. Practical instruction in engineering, weaving, See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

According to that scheme a capital sum of about £150,000, supplemented by a like amount obtained from the City companies and other sources, was made available for the building of technical and recreative institutions for the poorer classes of the working population of London, similar to the Polytechnic in See also:

• REGENT (from Lat. regere, to rule)

There was still an insufficient supply of secondary schools, and a complete absence of See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

An assistant secretary for secondary and another for technological instruction were appointed, both under the direction of the principal assistant secretary at the South Kensington branch. With a view to co-ordinating the technological instruction to be carried on by the board with that undertaken by the City and Guilds of London Institute and other bodies, a departmental committee was appointed in See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

School education of all grades was thus brought under the control of the same bodies, both as regards central and local administration, and the government and local authorities were free, under certain limitations imposed by the act, to prepare schemes for elementary, secondary and technical instruction, and for the See also:

• AWARD (from O. Fr. ewart, or esguart, cf. " reward ")

on different lines. A Technical Schools Act, applicable to Scotland only, was passed in 1887. This act enabled school boards by means of the school funds to provide and maintain technical schools. The act has proved to be practically inoperative. In Scotland, however, school boards have been entrusted with much larger powers, and possess greater influence, than in England. Many of the secondary schools of Scotland are under the direction and control of school board authorities. The residue of the beer and spirit duties under the Local Taxation Act applicable to Scotland was much less, even relatively to the population, than in England, and was, moreover, divided directly among so many different authorities as to be in most cases of little or no real value for educational purposes. Recently attempts have been made to combine the funds distributed among different neighbouring authorities, so as to bring them under the control of a single body for the benefit of a larger area. In the year 1896-97 the Education Department of Scotland was entirely separated from that of England, and there was a consequent transfer of functions and grants from the latter to the former. By the passing of the Local Taxation (Scotland) Act, 1898, the residue grant was relieved of certain charges, and additional funds thus became available for technical education. No grants for science or art instruction are made to Scottish schools from the English Board of Education; but several of the technical schools avail themselves of the examinations of the board, and also of those of the City and Guilds of London Institute. Among the equipped technical colleges in Scotland may be mentioned the See also:

• HERIOT
• HERIOT, GEORGE (1563-1623)

These do not differ in any essential points from corresponding schools in England. The system of instruction is very similar, and among the subjects taught will be found most of those included in the Regulations of the Board of Education and in the programme of the City and Guilds of London Institute. Special See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

The instruction given in such classes is very different as regards method, and. also in its aims and objects, from the training of apprentices in the factory or trade shop. The tools and appliances are the same, but they are used rather as a help to the teachers in illustrating principles than as a means of enabling the student to acquire that dexterity and skill which See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

These classes supply the teaching which may be regarded as the connecting See also:

• LINK

The operations of the department extend to all grades of schools, from the Royal College of Science, Dublin, organized as a Central Technical College, to the elementary and secondary schools which the department enters for the administration of the science and art grants to the evening technical classes conducted by local authorities. The first annual report of the department, published November 1901, showed that successful efforts had been made to improve science teaching as a part of general education, and to develop on correct lines manual training and technological instruction. The municipal school of technology at See also:

• BELFAST

The technical institutes established in London and in the large English manufacturing towns, attended mainly by evening students, are provided not only with expensive laboratory apparatus for the teaching of applied science, but also with tools and See also:

• MACHINES

In accordance with the regulations for secondary schools issued by the Board of Education in 1907, substantial grants were made to secondary schools which con-formed to certain conditions as regards local control and undenominational religious instruction, or the directive influence of the board as regards curriculum and management over all such schools was strengthened. At the same time, manual training and domestic science were made, essential parts of the curriculum in boys' and girls' schools respectively. The demand for technical education, which originally led to the formation of the City and Guilds of London Institute, directed attention to the methods of teaching science, drawing and other subjects, and to the necessity of including science in the curriculum of all grades of schools. The methods of science teaching have been greatly improved. Experimental work has become essential, and methods of investigation and research have been applied to the teaching of a number of subjects to which formerly they would have seemed inapplicable. A close connexion has thus been established between the workshop and the classroom, and practical instruction is now regarded as a necessary part of general education both elementary and secondary, and as no less disciplinary than the merely literary and oral teaching it has partly superseded. This change in the school curriculum and in the methods of instruction has narrowed the true significance of the term " technical " as applied to education. By the term " technical " as commonly used is now understood " technological " or " professional," and whilst technological instruction may supplement either primary or secondary education, it is necessarily distinct from either. The conviction has been steadily gaining ground that success in manufacturing industry, in the higher walks of commerce, and in every pursuit requiring technical knowledge, depends very largely upon the thorough and complete training of those who are charged with the control of the different kinds of work in which the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

The number of students in her universities and technical high schools is still in excess of those receiving a similar training in Great Britain. The establishment, however, of local universities and the schemes for the award of scholarships adopted by local education authorities, will tend year by year to lessen this disparity. Meanwhile, Germany has relaxed none of her former efforts, but is steadily occupied in the enlargement and improvement of her educational institutions. New schools have been erected, wherever and for whatever purpose they are needed, equipped with every modern appliance for scientific investigation and research. Each professional career has its corresponding high school or university department. The economy of a See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

Laboratories and workshops have for many years formed part of the equipment of the principal university colleges. In the statutes of the university of London a separate faculty is assigned to engineering, and part of the work of the polytechnic institutes is correlated with that of the reconstituted university. A survey of the field of education shows that whilst the difference between technical and general education is well marked in the primary and secondary stages, it is the function of the university to liberalize professional teaching, and to afford opportunities for specialized study and research in the higher branches of knowledge applicable to the practical work of industrial life. (P. M.