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PRACTICAL

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Originally appearing in Volume V20, Page 927 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS See also:

Medicine and See also:surgery have never been slow to appropriate and apply the biological facts of See also:pathology, and at no See also:period have they followed more closely in its See also:wake than during the last See also:quarter of the 19th See also:century. When, for instance, the cause of septic infection had been revealed, the prophylaxis of the disease became a possibility. Seldom has it happened, since the See also:discovery of the See also:law of gravity, that so profound an impression has been made upon the scientific See also:world at large as by the See also:revelation of the See also:part played by germ-See also:life in nature; seldom has any discovery been fraught with such momentous issues in so many See also:spheres of See also:science and See also:industry. The names of See also:Pasteur and See also:Lister will descend to posterity as those of two of the greatest figures in the See also:annals of medical science, and indeed of science in See also:general, during the 19th century. The whole See also:system of treatment of tubercular disease has been altered by the discovery of the tubercle microphyte. Previously consumptive individuals were carefully excluded from contact with fresh See also:air, and were advised to live in rooms almost hermetically sealed and kept at a high temperature. The treatment of the disease has now gone off in the opposite direction. Sanatoria have started up all over See also:Europe and elsewhere for its treatment on the open-air principle. Individuals suffering from pulmonary See also:phthisis are encouraged to live See also:night and See also:day in the open, and with the best results. The rapid diagnosis of See also:diphtheria, by recognizing its bacillus, has enabled the practitioner of medicine to commence the treatment See also:early, and it has also enabled the medical officer of See also:health to step in and insist on the See also:isolation of affected persons before the disease has had See also:time to spread. The discovery of the See also:parasite of See also:malaria by Laveran, and of the method by which it gains entrance to the human See also:body, through the bite of a particular variety of See also:mosquito, by See also:Manson and See also:Ross, promises much in the way of eradication of the disease in the future. One of the most remarkable practical out-comes of germ-pathology, however, has been the See also:production of the immunized sera now employed so extensively in the treatment of diphtheria and other contagious diseases.

By the continuous injections under the skin, in increasing doses, of the toxins of certain pathogenic micro-organisms, such as that of diphtheria, an See also:

animal—usually the See also:horse—may be rendered completely refractory to the disease. Its serum in course of time is found to contain something (antitoxin) which has the See also:power of neutralizing the toxin secreted by the organism when parasitical upon the body. This See also:immunity can be transferred to a fresh See also:host (e.g. See also:man) by injecting such serum subcutaneously. The See also:modern system of See also:hygiene is in See also:great part founded upon See also:recent pathology. The recognition of the dangers accompanying the drinking of polluted See also:water or See also:milk, or of those attached to the breathing of a germ-polluted See also:atmosphere, has been the natural sequence of an improved knowledge of pathology in its bacteriological relation-See also:ships. Skin-grafting and regeneration of See also:bone are among not the least remarkable applications of pathological principles to the combat with disease in recent times; and in this connexion may also be mentioned the daring acts of surgery for the See also:relief of tumours of the See also:brain, rendered practicable by improved methods of localization, as well as operations upon the serous cavities for diseased conditions within them or in their vicinity. For the See also:special pathological details of various diseases, see the See also:separate articles on PARASITIC DISEASES; NEURO-PATHOLOGY; See also:DIGESTIVE See also:ORGANS; See also:RESPIRATORY SYSTEM; See also:BLOOD: Circulation; METABOLIC DISEASES; See also:FEVER; See also:BLADDER; KIDNEYS; SKIN DISEASES; See also:EYE DISEASES; See also:HEART DISEASE; See also:EAR, &C.; and the articles on different diseases and ailments under the headings of their See also:common names. (1897), xxxiii. 2o1; Davidsohn, " Experimental Amyloid," See also:Arch. f. path. Anat. (1897), cl. 16; Delage, Studies in Merogony," Arch. de zool. exper. et gen.

(1899), vii. 383; Ehrlich, " Mastzellen," Arch. f. mik. Anat. (1877), xiii. 263; Engelmann, " Chemiotaxis of See also:

Oxygen for Bacteria," Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (188,), See also:xxv. 285; See also:Farmer, " See also:Present Position of some See also:Cell Problems," Nature (1898), ,viii. 63; Flemming, " Studies in Regeneration of the Tissues," Arch. f. mik. Anat. (1885), See also:xxiv. 371; See also:Frank, See also:Die Krankheiten der Pflanzen (See also:Breslau, 1895) ; Galeotti, " Experimental Production of Irregular Karyokinetic Processes," Beitr. z. path.

Anat. u. z. allg. Path. (1893), xiv. 288; Grawitz, " Slumber Cells," Arch. f. path. Anat. (1892), cxxvii. 96; See also:

Hahn, " Increase of Natural Resistance by Production of Hyperleucocytosis," Berl. klin. Wochenschr. (1896), xxxiii. 864; See also:Hamilton, " See also:Process of Healing," Journ. Anat. Physiol. and Path.

(1879), xiii. 518, also " Organization of Sponge," Edin. Med. Journ. (1882), See also:

xxvii. 385 ; See also:Text-See also:Book of Pathology (See also:London,1894) ; Hansemann, " Pathological Mitosis," Arch. f. path. Anat. (1891), exxiii. 356; See also:Hartig, Text-Book of the Diseases of Trees (Eng. trans., London, 1894) ; Heidenhain, " See also:Action of Poisons on Nerves of Submaxillary Gland," Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (1872) V. 309, also, " Question of See also:Lymph Production," ibid.

(1891), xlix. 209, also, " Central-Body of See also:

Giant-cells," Morph. Arb. (1897), Vii. 225; 0. Hertwig, Die Zeile u. d. Gewebe (1898, also Eng. trans., 1895); Heukelom, " Sarcoma and Plastic Inflammation," Arch. f. path. Anat. (1887), cvii. 393; Justi, " See also:Unna's Plasma-Cells in Granulations," Arch. f. Path. Anat.

(1897), cl. 197; Jiirgeliinas, " Protective Action of Granulations," Beitrage z. path. Anat. u. z. allg. Path., Ziegler (1901), See also:

xxix. 92; Kickhefel, " See also:Histology of Mucoid," Arch. f. path. Anat. (1892), Cxxix. 450; Krawkow, " See also:Chemistry of Amyloid," Arch. f. exper. Path. u. Pharmakol. (1897) xl. 195, also " Experimental Amyloid," Arch. f. path.

Anat. (1898), clii. 162; Krompecher, " Plasma-Cells," Beitr. z. path. Anat. u. z. allg. Path. (1898), xxiv. 163; Labbe, La Cytologie experimentale (See also:

Paris, 1898); See also:Lazarus-See also:Barlow, " Lymph Formation," Journ. Physiol. Carob. (1895–1896), xix. 418, also, See also:Manual of General Pathology (London, 1898) ; Loeb, " Certain Activities of the See also:Epithelial See also:Tissue of Skin of See also:Guinea-See also:pig, &c.," Johns See also:Hopkins Hosp. See also:Bull., Bait.

(1898), ix. 1, also " Artificial Production of Normal Larvae," Amer. Journ. Physiol. (1899), iii. 135; Lowit, " Relationship of Leucocytes to Bacterial Action," Beitr. z. path. Anat. u. z. allg. Path. (1897), xxii. 172; Lubarsch, " Experimental Amyloid," Arch. f. path. Anat. (1897), cl.

471; Lubarsch and Ostertag, Ergebnisse der spec. path. Morphologie u. Physiologie See also:

des Menschen (See also:Wiesbaden, 1896) ; See also:Ludwig, Lehrbuch der Physiol. vol. ii.; See also:Marshall See also:Ward, See also:Timber and some of its Diseases (London, 1889) ; Massart and Bordet, Irritability of Leucocytes," Journ. publ. See also:par la sec. des sci. med. et nat. de Bruxelles (189o), vol. v. ; Metchnikoff, Lectures on Comp. Path. of Inflammation (Eng. trans., London, 1893) ; Notkin, " Nature of Colloid in See also:Thyroid Gland," Arch. f, path. Anat. (1896), cxliv. 224 (Suppl. Hft.) ; Nowak, " Experimental Researches on Amyloidosis," Arch. f. path. Anat. (1898), clii. 162; Oddi, " Nature of Amyloid," Arch. f. exp.

Path. u. Pharmakol. (1894), xxxiii. 376; See also:

Paget, " Address on See also:ealing," Brit. Med. Journ. (188o), ii. 611; Pelagatti, " Blastomycetes and Hyaline degeneration," Arch. f. path. Anat. (1897), CI. 247; Penzo, " See also:Influence of Temperature on Cellular Regeneration," Archivios per le scienze mediche (1892) ; Pfeffer, " Chemiotaxis," Unters. aus d. bot. Inst., zu See also:Tubingen (1884), i.

363; ibid. (1888); Pickardt, " Chemistry of Pathological Exudates," Berl. klin. Wochenschr. (1897), xxxiv. 84 ; Plimmer, " See also:

Aetiology and Histology of See also:Cancer," Practitioner (1899), ix. 430; Ruffer and Plimmer, " Cancer Bodies," Journ. Path. and Bacterial. (1892–1893), 1. 395; Runebcrg, "Filtration of Albuminous Liquids," Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. (1885), See also:xxxv. 54, also " Diagnostic Value of Proteid in Dropsical Liquids," See also:Deutsch.

Arch. f. klin. Med. (1883), xxxiv. 1; See also:

Russell, " See also:Fuchsia Bodies," Brit. Med. Journ. (189o), ii. 1356; Salvioli, " Production of Oedema," See also:Virchow and See also:Hirsch's Jahresbericht (1885), i. 252; Schottlander, " Nuclear and Cell See also:Division in Epithelium of Inflamed Skin," Arch. f. mik. Anat. (1888), xxxi. 426; Sczawinska, " Reticular Structure of See also:Nerve-Cells," Compt. rend. acad. d. sc.

(1896), exxiii. 379; Senator, " On Transudation," Arch. f. path. Anat. (1888), cxi. 219 ; Shattock, " Healing of Incisions in See also:

Vegetable Tissues," Journ. Path. and Bacterial. (1898), v. 39; v. Sicherer, " Chemiotaxis of Leucocytes of Warm-blooded Animals outside the Body," Munch. med. Wochenschr. (1896), xliii. 976; Siegert, " Corpora Amylacea," Arch. f. path.

Anat. (1892), cxxix. 513; See also:

Starling, " See also:Mechanical Factors in Lymph Production," Journ. of Physiol. (1894), xvi. 224, also a number of other papers bearing upon lymph-production, in same; See also:Thorne, " Endothelia as Phagocytes," Arch. f. mik. Anat. (1898), Iii. 82o; See also:Thoma, Lehrbuch d. allg. Path. (1894), also vol. i. (Eng. trans., London, 1896); Trambusti, " On Structure and Division of Sarcoma Cells," Beitr. z. path. Anat. u. z. allg.

Path. (1897), xxii. 88; Verworn, General See also:

Physiology (Eng. trans., London, 1899) ; See also:Weismann, Essays upon See also:Heredity (Eng. trans., See also:Oxford, 1891) ; also, The Germ Plasm (London, 1893) ; Welch, " Oedema of See also:Lung," Arch. f. path. Anat. (1878), lxxn. 375; See also:Wilson, The Cell in Development and See also:Inheritance (London, 1896) ; Ziegler, " Entziindung," in Eulenburg's Real Encyclopadie, also Text-Book of Special Pathological See also:Anatomy (Eng. trans., New See also:York, 1897). (D. J. H.; R.

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