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MODERN See also:FRENCH]
This it is which accounts for the fact that romanticism then found so little See also:acceptance among sculptors. But in the next See also:generation the sowers of the See also:seed might see their See also:harvest: The pupils of See also:Rude, of See also:Barye and of See also:Carpeaux, allied by school sympathies—the little See also:drawing-school conducted by Lecoq de Boisbaudran, which, in despite of the studios of the See also:Beaux Arts, created a See also:group of See also:independent and highly See also:original artists—formed the centre of a distinct force which increased See also:day by day. See also:Young men, fresh from See also:Rome, persistently kept up the spirit of the See also:Antique. A See also:galaxy of learned and refined artists was represented by such men as Hiolle (1833-1887) (" See also:Arion," " See also:Orpheus "), Idrac (184o-1884) (" See also:Mercury inventing the See also:Caduceus," " Salammb6 "), Marqueste (" Galatea," " See also:Eros," " See also:Perseus See also:beheading the See also:Gorgon," " The See also:Rape of See also:Europa "), and Coutan (" Eros," " A Woman carrying Loaves," " A Sergeant-at-Arms," &c.), Lanson (" The See also:Iron See also:Age "), Longepied (1849-1888) (" See also:Immortality "), Peinte (" Orpheus charming See also:Cerberus to See also:Sleep "), Gustave See also:Michel (" In a See also:Dream," " Meditation "), See also:Caries (" Innocence," " See also:Abel "), A. See also:Boucher (" See also:Earth," " Au but "), besides Carlier, Leonard and Turcan (1846-1895)—soon to be followed by another generation: Puech (" The See also:Siren," " The Muse of See also:Andre See also:Chenier "), Verlet (" The See also:Monument to See also:Maupassant," " Orpheus "), Larche (" The See also:Brook and the Meadow," " Violets "), See also:Sicard (" Hagar and See also:Ishmael "), and Daillon, Escoula, St Lami, and many more. In opposition to these there stood a group of sculptors, young and old, who sought their subjects in See also:mythology, See also:legend, See also:history or See also:poetry, or merely in the scenes of daily See also:life, and aimed at presenting the ideal of their See also:time under its See also:external aspects, but more especially the deepest emotions of the modern mind. It was See also:Fremiet, with his striking and vivid conceptions, who led the advance with new and dramatic subjects: primeval See also:man and the fierce beasts with which he disputed his See also:rule (" A She-See also:Bear and a Man of the See also: The questions which turn on the status of the working man had become the See also:programme of every party, even of the most conservative. Art being the See also:mirror of society, the novel, the See also:drama and See also:painting devoted themselves to the glorification of a new See also:factor in modern life, namely, Labour. See also:Sculpture now, in rivalry with painting, through which See also:Millet had immortalized the See also:peasant, and See also:Courbet the working man, also sought See also:inspiration from such themes; and at the same time the demands of the democratic See also:movement called for monuments to the memory and deeds of See also:great or useful men.
Sculpture, under this modern tendency, assumed an unexpected aspect; its highest expression is seen in the See also:work of three men509
very dissimilar: Dalou, Rodin, and Bartholome. In See also:Belgium, as has been said, where modern social questions are strongly See also:felt, Constantin Meunier had interpreted the democratic impulse in a very striking manner, under the See also:influence, no doubt, of J. F. Millet. In France, Jules Dalou (1838-1902), with a broader view, aimed at creating an art which should represent the aspirations and dreams of this phase of society while adhering to the fine old traditions of the art of Louis XIV., stamped with magnificence and grandeur, but applied with graver, simpler and severer feeling to the glorification of the See also:people. He revived the older See also:style of sculpture, giving it greater See also:power and truer dignity by a See also:close study of life, supported by a scholarly and serious technique. In his " See also:Triumph of the See also:Republic," and the monuments to " Alphand," to " See also:Delacroix," to " See also:Floquet," to " See also:Victor See also:Hugo," and others, he strove to create a style apart. from life, to which he is See also:alien and indifferent, but based on life, the outcome of the needs of society, the impersonation of its characteristics, the expression in eloquent See also:form of its nature, spirit, and moral See also:idiosyncrasy.
Treading the same path, though in a different step, is Auguste Rodin. He disregards every contingent fact; even when he takes his subject from legend or history, whether " See also:Eve " or " St See also: He, like Carpeaux, has gone back, to Dante and to See also:Michelangelo to force the " See also:Gates of See also:Hell "—the subject chosen for the entrance to the Musee See also:des Arts Decoratifs—and to read the deepest mysteries of the human soul. His is the art of suffering, anguish and terror, of cruel and despairing See also:pleasure—a See also:wild See also:cycle of proud and See also:bitter See also:melancholy. All the efforts made in the past to infuse life into Art, all that See also:Puget, See also:Falconet, See also:Pigalle and See also:Houdon tried to effect, and that Rude, Barye and Carpeaux strove for in their turn—all this was See also:part of the endeavour of these their successors, but with a clearer purpose and more conscious aim. By See also:good hap or See also:providence they were greeted on their way by the See also:voice of the most devoted apostle who was to preach the new See also:doctrine, namely, Louis Courajod, the founder of the French sculpture See also:gallery in the Louvre. From his See also:professor's See also:chair in the See also:schools he cursed the See also:Italian intruders of the 16th See also:century for having debased French art with " See also:noble attitudes," extravagant gestures and allegorical antics; and he carried his pupils and his hearers back to the great See also:national See also:period of French sculpture, which, in the dark See also:medieval ages, had created the splendid stone images of the noble French cathedrals. A marked individuality now appeared in protest against academic traditions—See also:Albert Bartholome. He, after beginning as a painter, was tempted by sculpture, more particularly, in the first instance, by a wish to execute a monument to a comrade he had loved. From this first effort, carried out in his studio, without any school training, but with a See also:firm determination to See also:master technical difficulties and fulfil his dream, followed a broader purpose to execute a great expressive and vitally human work which should See also:appeal to the See also:heart of the populace. From this arose the See also:idea of a "Monument to the Dead " in Pere Lachaise. Bartholome had started without a See also:guide, but he instinctively turned to the great tradition of See also:Northern See also:Christianity, which his mind subsequently associated with that of the antique See also:race who had ever done most See also:honour to See also:Death, the people of See also:Egypt. Thus two currents contended, as it were, for the guidance of French sculpture, each claiming a descent from the historic past; one inheriting the classic tradition of the See also:Renaissance, of Latin and Hellenic origin, to which the French school, since the time of See also:Jean See also:Goujon, has owed three centuries of See also:glory. This is the See also:pagan art of the See also:South; its marks are See also:balance, reasonableness and lucidity; it was the composer of apotheoses, the preserver of the ideal of beauty. The other, reverting, after centuries of resignation or of impotent See also:rebellion, to the genuine French past which produced the noble See also:works of the 11th, 12th
and 13th centuries—to the tradition of See also:Flanders and of See also:Burgundy, which was smothered in the 16th century by Italian art—to the See also:Christian and naturalistic art of the See also:North, which renounced the canons of antiquity, and expressed itself by methods essentially human and mutable, living and suffering-appeals to all mankind. The immediate result of this antagonism was no doubt a period of agitation. The outcome, on the whole, is confusion. Still, however vexatious the See also:chaos of form and movement may be, it is Life, a true reflection of the tumult of modern thought in its complexity and bewilderment; it is the reawakening of sculpture.
Monumental and decorative statuary found an extended See also:sphere through the See also:founding or restoration of public buildings after the events of 1870. Memorial sculpture obtained See also:constant employment on patriotic or republican monuments erected in various parts of France, and not yet See also:complete. Illustrious masters have done themselves honour in such work. Dalou, See also:Mercie, Barrias, See also:Falguiere, and many others less famous executed monuments to the glory of the Republic or in memory of the national See also:defence, and figures of Joan of Arc as a See also:symbol of patriotism, &c., as well as numberless statues erected in the See also:market-places of humble towns, or even of villages, in See also:commemoration of national or See also:local celebrities: politicians, soldiers, savants and artists—See also:Thiers, Gambetta, Jules See also:Ferry, See also:Carnot, See also:Pasteur, See also:Claude See also:Bernard, Delacroix, See also:Ingres, See also:Corot, Millet, Victor Hugo, Lamartine and many more. The See also:garden of the Luxembourg alone has become a sort of Elysian See also:Fields, where almost every day some fresh statue rises up in memory of contemporary French poets. The funereal style of monument, in which French art was at all times conspicuously distinguished, was also revived in sympathy with that See also:general sentiment which regards reverence for the dead as a See also:religion, and gave rise, as we have seen, to some splendid work by See also:Chapu (the monuments to See also:Regnault, to See also:Daniel Stern, of Mgr See also:Dupanloup); by See also:Paul See also:Dubois (the monument to General See also:Lamoriciere); by Mercie (the tombs of See also:Baudry, of See also:Cabanel, of See also: Finally, the class of la petite sculpture—the statuette and small group—after See also:long hesitation in the hands of the two men who first cultivated it, Fremiet and the painter Ger6me, made a sudden start into life, due in no small measure to the success attending the charming and pathetic statuettes of Theodore Riviere (" Salammb6 and Malth6," " Ultimum feriens," " See also: We have already spoken of its " See also:state of mind," torn between the noble traditions of a glorious past which See also:link it to the antique, and the craving to render in its own See also:medium, with greater freedom and See also:fuller force of expression, all those unuttered meanings of the universe. and of contemporary thought which the other arts—painting, literature, the drama, and even See also:music—have striven to identify and to See also:record. But the acute See also:stage of tentative and incoherent effort seemed in 1910 to be past; inspiration had returned. to its normal channel and purely plastic expression. The powerful individuality which.had the most vital influence on modern sculpture in France, and, it may be added, on many See also:foreign schools, is that of Rodin. During the ten years which followed the Great See also:Exhibition in See also:Paris (1900) and the See also:special display of his works, his reputation spread throughout the countries of the See also:world and his fame was fully established. The state liberally contributed to his triumph by commissions and purchases, and in the Luxembourg Gallery may be seen about five and twenty of his finest works. His productiveness was unbroken, but it was chiefly evolved in relation to his first great conception, " The See also:Gate of Hell "; its leading features were taken up again, modified, See also:expanded, and added to by their creator. But besides the numberless embodiments of voluptuous, impassioned, or pathetic ideas—of which there is need to name only " See also:Les ombres " (the Shades) and " Le penseur " (the Thinker), now placed in front of the steps of the See also:Pantheon; several monuments, as for instance to Victor Hugo, to See also:Whistler, and to Puvis de Chavannes; besides a large number of portrait-busts. Enthusiastic See also:literary men, and the critics of the day who upheld Rodin in his struggles, more from an See also:instinct of pugnacity and a love of See also:paradox than from conviction and real comprehension of his prodigious and fertile See also:genius, have tended to give him a poetic and prophetic aspect, and make him appear as a sort of Dante in sculpture. Though his art is vehement in expression, and he has revelled in the presentment of agonized suffering and the poignant melancholy of See also:passion, it is by the methods of Michelangelo and essentially plastic treatment than power of modelling. His modelling is indeed the most wonderful that modern sculpture has to show, the most purely plastic technique, and this characteristic is always evident in his work, combined with reverence for the antique. Rodin made his See also:home in the midst of See also:Greek statues, a museum of the antique which he collected at See also:Meudon; and some of his own See also:late work, such as the male torsos which he exhibited at .the See also:Salon, has a See also:direct relationship to the See also:marbles of the See also:Parthenon—the Ilyssus and the See also:Theseus. It is the fuller understanding of these characteristics of Rodin's work, apart from some exaggeration of expression to which they have given rise, that has had the most valuable influence on the younger generation. Nothing need be particularly noted as to the development of masters long since recognized, whatever See also:branch of the school they belong to; such as Fremiet, Mercie, Marqueste, Injalbert, Saint-Marceaux and others already spoken of. The very distinct individuality of Bartholome, after asserting itself in his crowning effort the " Monument of the Dead," found very delicate expression in numerous works on a more modest See also:scale, nude figures, monumental See also:groups, and portraits. His monument to Jean-Jacques See also: The first fact to be noted about them is their determination to be men of their time. Many artists before them were indeed possessed by this idea: Legros, Dalou, the Belgian sculptor Constantin Meunier, the American St Gaudens, and among their immediate precursors Alfred Lenoir. But now this purposeful See also:bias is more strongly marked; the new men do not restrict themselves to the merely monumental or commemorative aspect, to the picturesque treatment of the miners or the tillers of the See also:soil. Every type of the people, even of the See also:middle-class See also:citizen, is included in the programme. Alexandre Charpentier (d. 1909) was one of the earliest of these younger realists, and he gave it expression not only in sculpture proper, but in See also:medal work, and has-reliefs introduced into See also:architecture, in decorative See also:furniture and in every form of ornamental sculpture. Thus he produced the " Woman suckling her See also:Infant " (1883) and a large bas-See also:relief of " Bakers," executed in stone and placed in the square of St Germain des Pres, Paris; and, following in his footsteps, other artists gave expression to the same ideas. An instructive fact is that one of these men was a See also:pupil of the Ecole des Beaux Arts and of the See also:academy at Rome. Hippolyte Lefebvre devoted himself to proving that the See also:common aspects of modern life are not an insuperable problem for the sculptor's art; See also:nay, that they actually afford him new subjects most suitable to his methods. He persisted in this purpose, and finally won the See also:adhesion of his See also:fellow-artists and the medal of honour for his " Jeunes aveugles " (See also:Blind Boys), in the Luxembourg Gallery. We have also by him in this manner of the day, handled with truly synthetic breadth, " Summer," a youthful See also:female figure in an See also:ordinary walking dress carrying a See also:parasol, her See also:straw See also:hat tilted over her eyes; " See also:Winter," an old See also:lady wrapped in furs, coming down See also:snow-covered steps; " See also:Spring," more accurately the " Age of Love," a group of six figures, and others. His comrade Roger Bloche has gone even further, asserting with no little pugnacity the same ideas in figures derived from the people, and in episodes of daily life, as in the " See also:Accident," a recumbent figure surrounded by about twenty bystanders, See also:drawn from every rank of society and rendered with that firm decision and breadth of treatment which alone constitute a work of art. This work earned him a first See also:prize in the Salon of 1909. These awards are an unmistakable sign of See also:official recognition of these tendencies, so long ignored and disapproved. Such encouragement has See also:borne See also:fruit. See also:Francois Sicard and See also:Henri Bouchard, who both had won the prix de Rome, started boldly on the new road, one in his monumental sculpture (a " Monument of the See also:War of 1870 " at See also:Tours; " Monument to See also:Barbey "; " Monument to Bertagna "; a See also:pediment for a See also:college for girls at Tours), the other in works recalling the feeling of Constantin Meunier by subjects of labour, in See also:town or See also:country, small figures in bronze, or large and important decorative groups, as '' La See also:Carriere " (the See also:Quarry) and " Le Defrichement "(Turning the Sod), a group of six oxen led by two men. This was intended to decorate the Champ de Mars. Meantime the study of beauty in the nude, far from being' neglected, seemed to start on a new See also:flight. Some students of the See also:Roman school revived this tradition. Victor Segoffin and Maximilien Landowski, each in his own See also:nervous, vivid and characteristic manner, and, borne on an independent current, Louis Convers and Aim& Octobre show a feeling for See also:grace and See also:charm. This is the normal and traditional heritage of the school; we see how strikingly it has renewed itself. In opposition to the followers of Rodin we find another group which represents an antagonistic school. Mademoiselle Camille Claudel, Jose de Charmoy and Henri Matisse typify the extremes of this manner; Emile Bourdelle, Aristide Maillot and Lucien Schnegg might be regarded as some of the artists who best deserved attention. With various characteristics and vehement or equable temperament they all reveal in the highest degree a fine sense of purely plastic qualities; in them we find no See also:lapse into the pictorial, no purpose or arriere-pensee that is not of the essence of sculpture. Emile Bourdelle has given us busts of See also:Beethoven, Carpeaux, Heracles (in the Luxembourg Gallery), See also:Pallas See also:Athena, and the large group of " Wrestlers of See also:Tarn et See also:Garonne " for completion in bronze. Maillot for his part prefers to work in marble and stone with large surfaces, after the tradition of the ancients; he exhibited in the autumn Salons several heads of girls and of old See also:women, a figure of a youth in bronze (1909) and a stooping nude female figure in See also:plaster. Lucien Schnegg's (d. 1909) reputation would have been assured by one bust only from his See also:hand, that, namely, of his pupil " Mademoiselle Jane Poupelet." This in marble is now in the Luxembourg Gallery, and is a masterpiece for grace and dignity in the best spirit of the antique. Besides these there should be named Jean Boucher, who has executed a monument to See also:Renan, the " Evening of Life " and " See also:Ancient and Modern "; E. Derr-6, an inventive decorator, with social tendencies and grateful emotional feeling; Max Blondat, lively and witty, as is seen in a fountain with frogs entitled " eunesse " (exhibited in the Royal Academy, 1910) and Love " (in the Luxembourg Gallery); Abbal, Pierre Roche, who loves to handle very various materials—marble, stone and See also:lead; Moreau-Vauthier, D. See also:Poisson, Fix-Masseau, Gaudissard, See also:David, Jacquot, Despiau, known by some fine busts, Drivier, Niclausse and Michel Cazin. Sculpture on a small scale was effectively carried on by L. Dejean, Vallgren, Carabin, who carves in wood, See also:Cavaillon and Feomont-See also:Meurice. The sculpture of animals, since G. Gardet and P. Peter, has been brilliantly executed by Paul Jouve, Christophe, Navellier, See also:Bigot, See also:Perrault-Harry, Marie See also:Gautier, See also:Berthier and others. (L. BE.) The inevitable reaction in Belgium following upon the long period of dry and lifeless academic sculpture is difficult to trace to any particular See also:pioneer or See also:leader. Nevertheless the three men who certainly See also:mark this period of revolt nr°dern are See also:Guillaume Geefs, De See also:Bay and Simonis. There sculpture. is, however, very little to be remembered of these men except that they were the best of their time. Geef's work was marred greatly by his frivolous and unessential details and poverty of thought, together with a frigid coldness of expression in his modelling. In his statue of General Belliard at See also:Brussels, however, he shows the tendency to See also:search for a broader and truer See also:interpretation that warrants his being mentioned as belonging to the movement against the academic school. De Bay was a sculptor of a more See also:artistic temperament, and though some of his works are charming and sympathetic when judged by the See also:standard of his own day, few show See also:evidence of advanced ideas. The work of Simons is very different. Beyond the See also:mere endeavour to grasp something more true, his work is fresher and perhaps more honest, more bold and gifted with more life. Such qualities are shown in his " Young Girl," in the museum at Brussels, and " Godefroid de See also:Bouillon," in the Place See also:Roy*. Besides these three sculptors there was no man of See also:note to strengthen the revival of sculptural art until Paul de See also:Vigne (1843–1901). His early work bears the unmistakable influence of the Italian Renaissance, but after studying in Paris and in Rome he became a follower of the true classic ideal, not of the so-called classicism of See also:Canova and his followers. He was a prolific artist, and from his numerous works it is difficult to pronounce one as his masterpiece. Perhaps that most generally considered his best is the sepulchral marble figure of " Immortality " in the museum at Brussels. Almost its equal in beauty and truthful rendering are his two bronze groups, " The Triumph of Art," on the See also:facade of the Palais des Beaux Arts at Brussels, and the monument to Breydell and De See also:Koninck at See also:Bruges. Among his other works are " Fra Angelico of See also:Fiesole."
the bust of Professor Moke, at See also:Antwerp, " See also:Heliotrope " in the museum at See also:Ghent, " Portrait of M. Charles See also:van See also:Hutten," the See also: There is also a bronze group of horses and Tritons for the park of the See also:Chateau d'Ardenne. Few men have exercised such influence upon Belgian sculpture as Jef See also:Lambeaux (1852–1908), the Flemish artist. He was See also:born at Antwerp of poor and obscure parents. At an early age he showed great aptitude for drawing, and after a very meagre See also:education he was apprenticed to a wood See also:carver. While there he studied at the academy schools. At sixteen he completed his course and undertook his first important See also:commission, that for two reliefs for the tympana of the French theatre. He was successful for a time in producing statuettes, but after a while his success waned and he was obliged to abandon sculpture and to take any work he could get. After a period devoted to See also:odd employments—sometimes painting, sometimes modelling—he again saved See also:money to enable him to produce some good works. The first of these, " The Kiss," was finished in 1880. It had a great success and was bought by the Antwerp Museum. This See also:discovery of a sculptor of talent led the town of Antwerp to find the means for sending Lambeaux to See also:Italy. After studying in See also:Florence he returned to produce " La Folle Chanson," which by some is considered his masterpiece. The group of " See also:Intoxication " produced later is less satisfactory. The figures show a curious and unpleasant development which the sculptor's previous work scarcely hinted at. A work which may be placed with his " Folle Chanson " is the " Fountain of Brabo " in front of the Hotel de Ville at Antwerp. This in fact is declared by many critics to be Lambeaux's chefd'cauvre; it is certainly his most imposing monument. Other works of his are " The Robber of the See also:Eagle's See also:Nest," the wonderful See also:colossal relief, " The Passions of Humanity," " The Wrestlers " and " The See also:Orgy." Less bold and energetic than Lambeaux's is the work of See also:Julien See also:Dillens (b. 1849). Though it does not possess that sense of life and the directness which is found in his See also:brother sculptor, his standard of excellence was steadier. He will be remembered as one of Belgium's finest decorative sculptors, for his best work has been done in architectural enrichment. His pediment for the See also:Hospice des Trois See also:Allies at Uccle is a successful treatment of the difficult dress of modern times. See also:Dillen's masterpiece is without doubt the group of " See also:Justice " in the Palais de Justice at Brussels. He is responsible for many other important works, the See also:chief of which are the busts of De Pede and See also:Rubens in the Brussels Museum, a statue of Van See also:Orley in one of the squares of Brussels, " The Lansquenets," on the See also:summit of the Royal See also:Palace. (before its reconstruction), a statue of Jean de See also:Nivelles on the front of the Palais de Justice at Nivelles, and the marble statues of St Victor and St Louis at See also:Epernay. There is yet another artist who ranks as one of the greatest sculptors of Flanders.- This is Jules Lagae (b. 1862). He was a pupil of Jef Lambeaux. His work does not See also:call for further distinction from that of Dillens and Lambeaux, than that it is what may be termed " delicate " and possessed a distinctive charm of spontaneous freshness. His " See also:Mother and See also:Child," shown at Florence in '891, is a good example of the first quality, while " The Kiss," a terra-See also:cotta bust, shows his spontaneity. In the Walloon provinces two sculptors have done much for the renaissance of the art, Achille Chainave and Jean Marie Gaspar. Achille Chainaye (b. 1862) is not a prolific sculptor, but all his workis inspired, it would seem, by similar motives and ideas to those which inspired the early sculptors of Florence. The scarcity of his works may be accounted for by the fact that his productions were received with ridicule and derision. See also:Meeting with scant success, he abandoned sculpture and devoted himself to journalism. The work of Jean. Marie Gaspar (b. 1864) shows the inspiration of a whole See also:gamut of emotions, but hardly the continuity of purpose necessary to carry to completion See also:half of his conceptions. He studied under Lambeaux, and, while still in his master's studio, he produced a wonderful group, " The See also:Abduction," two men on furious, plunging horses See also:wrestling for the See also:possession of a struggling woman. This group was shown at the Paris Exposition of 1889, and brought immediate fame to the then unknown sculptor. Of his other finished works may be cited " The Brave," an See also:Indian on horseback; " Adolescents," a charming group of two nude See also:children embracing; " The Young Girl on a See also:Rock," and the See also:Panther," destined for the botanical gardens at Brussels.
From the death in 1904 of Constantin Meunier (b. 1831) up to the See also:year 1910 no man had advanced beyond the standard set up by that great sculptor. At the outset of his career Meunier had, like all pioneers, to contend with the hostility and derision of the public and of the See also:press. His work touched a hitherto unawakened note. His sympathies See also:lay all with the people who, obscure and unsung, work for the enrichment of the nation. Thus we find his energies and love of work wrapped around the iron foundry, the mine, the See also: He studied in the studio of Fraikin. But it is unlikely that he was much influenced by him, and he soon forsook sculpture for painting. He was for some years one of the group of independent painters, which included De Groux, Dubois, See also:Boulanger, and Baron. When these artists See also:fell apart, Meunier stood alone, painting where no painter had before ventured or given a thought, working amongst the machinery, the pits, and the great factory yards. He continued for twenty-five years to paint in this manner, ignoring public ridicule and neglect. Then Meunier suddenly returned to his old love and produced some small, statuettes. One of these—a puddler seated in an attitude of weariness, hard and rough and See also:muscular, clad in little beyond his leathern See also:apron—attracted much attention at the exhibition of the " Society of the XX." at Brussels. The subject and the treatment, so different to the recognized precepts of the schools, created a vast amount of discussion. From that time Meunier continued on the road he had taken, and produced works which gained to him new believers and new See also:friends. Among his chief productions are " Fire-damp," in the Brussels Museum, ' The Mower," in the Jardin Botanique at Brussels, " The See also:Glebe," and " Puddlers at the See also:Furnace," both in the Luxembourg Museum, " The Hammerman," the statues on the facade of Notre See also:Dame de la Chapelle, and the monument to See also:Father See also:Damien at See also:Louvain. Jacques de See also:Lalaing is the author of the masterly monument erected at Evere to the English See also:officers and men who fell at See also:Waterloo, an elaborate work full of See also:imagination and sculptural force and originality. His statue to See also:Robert Cavelier de la Salle, at See also:Chicago, is also a noteworthy performance, and important decorative works by him are to be seen embellishing public gardens in Brussels. Among the leading sculptors of to-day is to be ,eckoned Charles See also:Samuel, who leans towards the traditions of yesterday. Canova so dominated the world of sculpture at the beginning of the 19th century that the pseudo-classic style which he introduced remained typical of all the Italian sculpture of note until See also:Bartolini led the movement which h1°dero ultimately * crushed it. In Rome Canova completely sculpture. overshadowed all other sculptors except perhaps See also:Thorwaldsen, the Danish sculptor, who resided for some time in that city. It is true that Pompeo Marchesi (1789–1858) at the outset of his career enjoyed great popularity, but at the time of his death he was well-nigh forgotten. The See also:interval between the death of Canova and the rise of Bartolini and the new school was filled in by men of mediocre talent, in whose work the influence of the leader of classicism is strongly marked. ' See also:Francesco Carradori (1747–1824), Camillo Pacetti (1758–1826), Rinaldo Rinaldi (b. 1793) and Giuseppe Fabris (b. 'Soo) were all followers of Canova, the last three being pupils of that master. Lorenzo Bartolini (1777–1850) became the leader of the movement towards See also:naturalism. This was nothing. more nor less than the servile copying of form—both in natural forms and in dress. Nevertheless Bartolini must be remembered as the pioneer of a different kind of naturalism which was of far greater importance than the manner of treating forms and texture. His , true originality lay in ' his representations of character. In place of the classic subjects invariably treated
in his time, he applied himself to the study of actual life. Instead of the expressionless faces of the pseudo-classic, he gave vitality and See also:energy.
A sculptor who was much talked of in his day was Pietro Tenerani (1789–1869), a native of Torano near See also:Carrara. He worked for some time as assistant to Thorwaldsen. Later these two sculptors jointly accepted a commission for the monument of See also:Eugene See also:Beauharnais, and as Thorwaldsen wished to suppress the younger man's name, they quarrelled and finally separated. Tenerani visited See also:Munich and See also:Berlin, where he enjoyed the patronage of See also:Frederick William IV. During the disturbances of 1848 and 1849 he was obliged to leave Rome with his family, in consequence of his sympathy with the Papists and his friend-See also:ship for See also:Count Pellegrino See also:Rossi, who was assassinated in 1848. Amongst Tenerani's works are a statue of Count Rossi, 4 monument to See also:Pius VIII. in the See also:sacristy of St Peter's, " The See also:Angel of Resurrection " in the Friedenskirche at See also:Potsdam, a See also:low relief in the See also: His chief works are a statue of See also:Bishop See also:Luini at See also:Lugano; Desolation,' at the See also:Villa Gabrina, Lugano; William Tell, at Lugano; the See also:Alfieri and statues of Dr Gallo at the university, and of Cesare See also:Balbo, all at See also:Turin; the statues of Tommaso See also:Grossi and Gabrio Piola at the Brera, See also:Milan; Dante and ' Giotto at See also:Padua; See also:Joachim See also:Murat at the Certosa, See also:Bologna; and See also:Cavour at See also:Genoa. His masterpiece is the seated figure of See also:Napoleon at See also:Versailles. After Bartolini, sculpture in Italy slowly developed along the lines of " naturalism " suggested by that leader. Perhaps the greatest activity and advance are to be recorded around See also:Naples, a city till then of subordinate importance in art. Tommaso Solari (b. 1820), who may be regarded as one of the group belonging to Naples, produced work which is hardly distinguishable from that of Vela. His statue of Carlo See also:Poerio, which occupies an important position in Naples, is characteristic of his work. He was followed by several sculptors whose works betray but little originality except in some cases in the forcing of qualities they wished to accentuate,. and the selection of daring or dramatic subjects—qualities which reveal the true character of the Neapolitan. The work of Raffaele Belliazzi, another Neapolitan (b. 1835), like that of Solari, is full of conscientious study, but his naturalism shows no genius. Among his works are "The Sleeping Boy," in the Gallery of Modern Art, Rome; " A Woman and Child,' and two terra-cotta busts at Capodimonte. Emilio See also:Franceschi (1839–1890) and kchille D'Orsi (b. 1845) both belonged to the Neapolitan group of sculptors. Though the former was not a native of Naples, he resided there from 1869 until his death. But while Franceschi was influenced to a very large extent by the Neapolitan school, D'Orsi See also:broke away from it and created a distinctive style of his own. He studied in Rome, and in 1876 returned to Naples, where he produced " I1 Cabalista," followed by " The Parasites," the latter establishing his fame by its singularity both of subject and treatment. It represents two gluttons in a state of extreme intoxication. The group is remarkable as showing lYOrsi s See also:powers of characterization. A man of perhaps greater original thought was Francesco Jerace, who seems to have been entirely free from the ` academic " smallness which characterized the followers of the naturalistic movement. He was born at Polistena in See also:Calabria in 1853. His work bears the impress of his See also:personality and his rather marked aloofness from his contemporaries. He is the author of the monument to See also:Mary See also:Somerville, the English mathematician, which is in the See also:Protestant cemetery at Naples; See also:Vittoria See also:Colonna, exhibited at the Brera, Milan, in 1894; and the Beethoven exhibited at See also:Venice, 1895. At See also:Bergamo there is a statue of the musician See also:Donizetti, which was placed there in 1897. Vincenzo Gemito was born at Naples in 1852 of parents in a very humble position. He picked up a living in various occupations until, at the age of fourteen, he entered the studio of Emanuele Caggiano (1866). He worked hard and to some purpose, for two years after he modelled " The Gamester," which is at Capodimonte. This work shows evidence of astounding precocity. His work is xEv. zsrealistic, but forcible and more alive than that of many sculptors of his day. Gemito was supremely confident of his powers, and in a manner this was justified by his early recognition both amongst critics and the public. He designed a statue of Charles V. for the facade of the Royal Palace at Naples. A small figure of a See also:water-See also:carrier upon a fountain is now in the Gallery of Modern Art at Rome; in the same gallery are his statuette of See also:Meissonier and a terra-cotta figure of See also:Brutus. A sculptor of quite a different class of subject is Costantinc Barbella, born at See also:Chieti in 1853, who gave his entire attention to See also:pastoral subjects, dealing with the costumes, types and occupations of the folk among whom his early life was spent. In the Royal Villa at See also:Monza is a replica of his three peasant girls—a group in terra-cotta. In the national gallery at Rome there are a group of " The Departure of the Conscript," " The Conscript's Return," and another called See also:April." For some years the activity amongst what may be called the Sicilian group of sculptors was headed by Benedetto Civiletti (b. See also:Palermo, 1846). Civiletti was a pupil of See also:Dupre, but his work bears little impress of his master's influence; it is characterized mostly by its force and meaning of gesture and facial expression.. His statue of " The Youth Dante " at the moment of the first meeting with See also:Beatrice, and his seated figure of " The Young See also:Caesar " are both works which successfully show his power of pose and facial expression. He is the author also of the famous Canaria group, " Christ in See also:Gethsemane," " The Dead Christ," a group of the See also:siege of See also:Missolonghi, and a group of seventeen life-See also:size figures representing the last stand of the Italians at the See also:massacre of Dogali. The family of Ximenes of Palermo is noted on See also:account of the three of its members who each became well known in the world of art: Empedocle, the painter. Eduardo, the writer, and Ettore, the sculptor. Ettore was a pupil of See also:Morelli. His earliest work of note was a boy balancing himself upon a See also:ball which he called " See also:Equilibrium." He also produced La Rixe," " Le marmiton," Cuore del Re," " The Death of Ciceruacchio," " See also:Achilles," and many others. His statue of " Revolution " is one of his best works. Giulio See also:Monteverde's work is conspicuous for its gaiety and sparkle, but though he has had some influence upon the See also:recent sculptors of Italy, his work follows the naturalistic precepts laid down by his predecessors. A group of his own children, full of vivacious merriment, is in the Palazzo Bianco at Genoa; a " Madonna and Child " is in the Camposanto, and a statue of Victor See also:Emmanuel stands in the square in the centre of Bologna. Ettore See also:Ferrari of Rome (b. 1849) is another sculptor whose work shows remarkable care and love of what is called finish. He has produced the statues Porcari," the medieval revolutionist, " See also:Ovid," " Jacopo Ortis," " A Roman Slave," " See also:Giordano See also:Bruno," in the Campo di Fiori, and " See also:Abraham See also:Lincoln," in the New See also:York Museum. To the Roman group of sculptors also belongs Ercole See also:Rosa (b. 1846). That he was a man of considerable talent is shown by his group of the See also:Cairoli at Rome and his monument of Victor Emmanuel near the See also:cathedral at Milan. Emilio Gallori, who studied at the Florence academy, is the author of the colossal statue of St Peter on the facade of the cathedral at Florence. He won the competition for, and executed, the See also:Garibaldi monument at Rome. A sculptor who is looked upon as the leader of the Venetian school is See also:Antonio dal Zotto (b. 1841), a follower of Ferrari, at whose hands he received much of his training. He won the prix de Rome offered by the academy, and in Rome he met and became a friend of Tenerani. Being a man of independent views, however, he was but little affected by Tenerani's work. He was then twenty-five years old, and after spending two years in Rome and in other centres of artistic interest, he returned to Venice, where he produced a statue of St See also:Anthony of Padua, one of See also:Petrarch and another of Galileo. In 188o he completed his statue of See also:Titian for the master's birth-place, Pieve di Cadore, and in 1883 he finished the figure of See also:Goldoni In Venice. He is author also of a statue of Victor Emmanuel and a monument of See also:Tartini the violinist, the former in the memorial See also:tower on the battlefield of S. Martino near See also:Brescia, the latter in a public square at See also:Pirano. Turin boasts many sculptors who are known throughout the country. Chief of these is Odoardo Tabacchi (b. 1831). He is the See also:joint author with Antonio Tantardini of the Cavour monument at Milan. He has modelled several subjects of a lighter type, such as " The Bather," exhibited in Milan in 1894. Lorenzo Bistolfi, a lounger man, conquered recognition chiefly by his See also:composition of Grief Comforted by Memory." Amongst other Turin sculptors must be mentioned See also:Luigi See also:Belli, author of the See also:Raphael monument at See also:Urbino, and Davide Calandra, whose " L'Aratro " is in the national gallery at Rome. As everywhere in western and central See also:Europe, national sculpture in Austria during the first half of the 19th century was altogether influenced by the classicism of the Italian Canova—in Austria perhaps more than in Modern See also:Austrian other countries, since two of Canova's most important ccarptaro works came to See also:Vienna in the early years of the century: the famous See also:tomb of Marie Christine in the Augustinerkirche, 1i which was ordered by Duke Albrecht of See also:Saxony, in 18o5, at the two imperial museums. Munich owns his monument of King See also:price of 20,000 ducats; and the Theseus group, bought by the Ka Maximan II. rl Ku~ndmann~ b. 1838),stoawhose vigorous art Vienna owesthat the See also:emperor See also:Francis, in Rome, which is now in the Vienna Museum. See also:Tegetthoff monument (based on the See also:Duilius See also:column), the See also:Schubert Canova's pupil, Pompeo Marchesi, was the author of the emperor statue, the seated figure of See also:Grillparzer, and the awkwardly placed Francis monument, unveiled in 1846, in the inner See also:court of the " See also:Minerva " in front of the houses of See also:parliament. See also:Joseph V. Mysl-Hofburg. See also:beck (b. 1848) worked under Thomas Seidaus (183o–189o), and is The first national sculptor of note was the Tirolese See also:Franz the author of the equestrian figure of St Vaelav, of The Crucified Saviour," and of the Sladkowsky tomb in See also:Prague. The most successful Zauner (1746–1822), who was knighted in 1807 (the year in of the younger school was See also:Edmund Hellmer (b. 1850), who executed which his Kaiser-Joseph monument was unveiled) and became the group on the pediment of the houses of parliament; " Francis director of the Vienna gallery and academy. Among his works Joseph granting the Constitution "; the See also:Turkish monument at St the tomb of See also:Leopold II. in the Augustinerkirche; the See also:Stephen's; one of the See also:wall fountains on the facade of the new Hofburg are (Austria's See also:land power)—the See also:companion figure (" See also:Sea Power ") is tomb of General Laudon at Hadersdorf; the tomb of the poet by See also:Rudolf Weyr (b. 1847) ;—the animated Bacchus See also:frieze of the Heinrich von See also:Collin in the Karlskirche in Vienna; and a number Court Theatre; the statue of Francis Joseph in the See also:polytechnic of busts in the See also:Empire style, which are by no means remarkable as See also:institute; and the reliefs of the Grillparzer monument. of artistic individuality. Leopold Kiesling Like Hellmer and Weyr, Victor Tilgner (1844–1896) was a pupil of expressions (1770– F. See also:Bauer; but he owed his training rather to Joseph von Gasser 1827), another Tirolese, whose first work on a large scale is the and Daniel See also:Boehm. He produced a vast number of portrait busts Mars, See also:Venus and See also:Cupid, in the Imperial gallery, was sent by of his most prominent contemporaries in Vienna. Among his most his See also:patron, Count Cobenzl, to Rome, where he was more attracted notable monuments are those to See also:Mozart and See also:Makart in Vienna, the by Canova than by the antique or the late Renaissance. Joseph Werndl figure at See also:Steyr, Burgermeister Petersen in See also:Hamburg, and a war memorial at See also:Koniggratz, in addition to numerous monumental Klieber (1773–1850), also Tirolese, enjoyed the See also:protection of fountains. Artistically on a higher See also:plane than Tilgner stands See also:Prince Johann See also:Liechtenstein, who employed him in the plastic See also:Arthur Strasser (b. 1854), who excelled in polychromatic work on a decoration of his town See also:residence and country seats. His reputa- small scale. In the 'seventies his See also:Japanese figures excited consider- excelled as sculptor of colossal figures for imperial triumphal See also:arches able interest and attracted Makart's attention. He excelled in and See also:loft tombs was so widespread that he was given the See also:Egyptian and Indian genre figures, such aprhn See also:Hindu between an lofty g two elephants. An Arab ab leaning against a See also:Sphinx and a classic commission for the See also:catafalque of Louis XVIII. in Paris. Many female figure with a funeral See also:torch were strikingly decorative. His middle-class houses of the Empire period in .Vienna were decor- See also:green patined bronze of " The Triumph of See also:Antinous " with a team ated by him with reliefs of children. The elaborate relief figures of lions was awarded a first medal at the Paris Exhibition of. 1900. See also:Vincent and on the Andreas See also:Hofer monument in See also:Innsbruck are the work of caryatids on n the (b. Vienna na h'wasouses th of the parliament, , anandd of t quadrigas the h Kigasolztitz itz his hand. His followers were less favoured by powerful protec- and Tiirck monuments. Contemporary with him were KarlCostetion and were forced into a definite direction: among them noble (b. 1837), Alois Dull (b. 1843), See also:Otto See also:Konig (b. 1838), Anton must be mentioned Johann See also: Tamers " in front of the See also:Hof-Stallgebaude. He was the father of See also:Sir Joseph See also:Edgar Boehm, R.A. Emanuel Edmund See also:Hofmann von Aspernburg (b. 1847) is the sculptor of the von Max (18ro–1900), who in See also:conjunction with his brother See also:Friedrich See also:Schmidt monument, of the bronze See also:centaurs in front of the h modelled the See also:Radetzky monument in Prague, wrote Vienna Academy of Fine Arts, and of the monument of See also:Archduke Joseph Karl See also:Ludwig. The works of Stefan Schwartz (b. 1851) are remark-in his autobiography, concerning the year 1833 in Vienna: able for their vigour. He excelled in a new technique of See also:embossing " Art, particularly sculpture, was at the lowest ebb. The portrait plaques in silver direct from life: He See also:counts also among the appearance of a statuette or bust at an exhibition was considered best Viennese medallists, almost equalling Heinrich Natter (x844= became professor of sculture in wood. an event." But a strong movement began towards the end The veryetalent distatuet e-m See also:ker Ludwig Dtirnbauer (186o–1895) of the 'fifties. Professor Franz Bauer, of the Vienna academy 'died almost at the beginning of what promised to be a brilliant (1797–1872), exercised a most stimulating influence upon the career. Other distinguished sculptors of statuettes and works on a rising generation. Among the earlier artists, whose life overlaps small scale were Hans Rathausky (b. 1858) and Johann Scherpe into the new era, were Anton See also:Dietrich (1799–1872) who is (b. 1855), who was entrusted with the See also:execution of the See also:Anzengruber « „ monument. They all were pupils of Kundmann, as was also the best known by The Three Magi, on the See also:porch of the church See also:animal sculptor Lax. Karl Schwerzek is the author of the Lei}ati of St John, and by a very beautiful ivory crucifix; and Johann and Anastasias Grunbusts in Vienna, and Franz Vogl (b. 1861) of Preleuthner (b. x8ro). the poet See also:Raimund's monument. Among Zumbusch's pupils were The architectural rejuvenation of Vienna led to the rise of an Anton Brenck, the creator of the emperor Joseph II. monuments original local school of sculpture. J. D. Boehm devoted himself in See also:Brunn and See also:Reichenberg; Emanuel Pendl, whose colossal marble almost entirely to See also:goldsmith-work and medals, but with the aid of statue of " Justice " is placed in the See also:law courts in Vienna; and Hans his great collections he taught the new generation and helped to Bitterlich (b. 1860), whose bust of Exner in the Vienna university develop original talent. Hans Gasser (1817–1868) owed him his is one of the most remarkable pieces of realistic portraiture in that introduction to society, for whom he produced many busts. He city. Another work of his is the See also:Gutenberg monument. Othmar modelled the empress Elisabeth monument at the western railway Schimkowitz is remarkable for a strikingly original style. station in Vienna, the See also:Wieland monument in See also:Weimar, and the In the other provinces under the Austrian emperor's rule, the famous " Donauweibchen " in the Vienna town park. His brother, best-known sculptors are the Carniole Marcell Guicki (183o-1894), Joseph Gasser von Wallhorn (b. 1816), was a sculptor of figures of Lewandowski, Buracz, and the Tirolese Gurschner, who follows the See also:saints, many of which decorate St Stephen's Cathedral and the modern French style of statuette sculptors. Votive Church in Vienna. Anton Fernkorn (1813–1878), born at In the art of the medallist, Professor Karl Radnitzky the elder See also:Erfurt, was Austrian by his art. He started as a metal worker, (b. 1818) led the way after J. D. Boehm; but he was surpassed'by and studied in Munich, but not at the academy. His talent was only his pupil Joseph Tautenhayn (b. 1837), whose large See also:shield ' Struggle fully developed after he settled in Vienna, which city owes to him between the Centaurs and See also:Lapithae” was the cause of his appoint-the bold equestrian bronze monuments of Archduke Charles (1859) ment as professor. More important still is Anton Scharff (b. 1845), and Prince Eugene of See also:Savoy (1865). He became director of the a real master of the delicate art of the medallist. imperial bronze foundry, in which See also:post he was followed by his pupil At the beginning of the 19th century the art of sculpture Franz Poenninger. Johann Meixner (b. 1819 in Bohemia) is the creator of the marble figures on the Albrecht Fountain, one of the was practically dead in See also:Spain—or at least was mainly confined most famous and imposing monuments in Vienna: Vienna received to the See also:mechanical See also:production of images of saints. Spaais6 a few of her most important monuments from the strong personality But towards the middle of the century the two See also:brothers 19tkopar h . I8 mo nue ands that of Marcia See also:Theresa, an imposing t and skilfully Agapito and Venancio Vallmitjana, of See also:Barcelona, pto designed work, which solves in admirable See also:fashion the problem of encouraged by the See also:enthusiasm with which some of placing a monument effectively between the heavy masses of the their works had been received by local connoisseurs, took part in the Paris Figure competition for the figure which decorates the entrance to the offices of that See also:journal, and carried off the second prize. They afterwards obtained the first prize in other competitions at See also:Madrid and other See also:Spanish centres. Their chief works are: " Beauty dominating Strength," " St Vincent de Paul," the large statue erected at See also:Valencia to See also:Don Jaime Conquistador, and groups of Queen See also:Isabella with the Prince of the See also:Asturias, and Queen Marie Christine with Alfonso XIII. Another sculptor of distinction is See also:Andres Aleu, professor of the Barcelona School of Fine Arts, whose See also:principal works are the " St George and the See also:Dragon " on the facade of the Barcelona Chamber of Deputies, and Marshal Concha, the equestrian statue in Madrid. Kosendo Novas, of Catalan birth, like most modern Spanish sculptors of See also:eminence, is best known by his masterpiece, " The dead Torero." See also:Manuel Oms, another Barcelona sculptor who leans to the naturalistic school, is the author of the monument to Isabella the See also:Catholic, erected at the end of the Pasco de la Castellana in Madrid in 1883. Antonio Fabres, who at the beginning of his career was an eminent sculptor, devoted himself subsequently to painting. Agustin Querol, and Mariano Benlliure, of Valencia, were for many years the official favourites of the Spanish government, who entrusted them with numerous important commissions, though their work was neither lofty in conception nor particularly remarkable as regards execution, and occasionally, as in Querol's monument of Alfonso XII.—especially in the completed See also:sketch of it—See also:baroque in the extreme. Indeed, the genius of the Spanish race at all times, and particularly in the 19th century, found its expression in painting rather than in sculpture. Querol's group called " Tradition " is well imagined and expressive, and a good example of the best work achieved by a school in which freedom is the chief note. Towards the end of the 19th and in the early years of the 20th centuries, Joseph Llimona y Brugena (" The Communion ") and Blay, both of Catalan birth, were the most distinguished sculptors of Spain. The fame of Blay, who was a pupil of Chapu in Paris, has extended beyond the frontiers of his native country. His style has at the same time strength and delicacy. His chief works are the Miners' monument at See also:Bilbao, and a group of an old man seated on a See also:bench protecting a little girl from the cold. He also produced a great number of delicately wrought marble busts before his career was prematurely cut short. Joseph Llimona is the most See also:personal and distinguished of all modern Spanish sculptors. His art ranges from the greatest delicacy to real power. At the See also:International Exhibition at Barcelona in 1907 he was awarded the See also:grand prize of honour for a group intended for the monument to Dr Robert in that city; and for a small marble figure of See also:Pain, a work in which he has been thought to See also:rival the Florentines of the best period. Jose Alcoverro, Pages y Serratora, Jose Gragera, Fuxa y Leal, See also:Miguel Embil, and the brothers Osle are prominent members of the younger school and aim at giving " the personal note." The vigour displayed by them illustrates the revivification and rejuvenation of Spanish sculpture. See also:Russian sculpture has practically no past to record. In its beginnings Russian art was entirely ruled by the Church, whose See also:laws were inspired by Byzantinism, and who forced all Russian sculpture. artists to submit to strictly fixed rules as regards sculpt form and See also:formula. Before the 18th century, Russian sculpture was practically non-existent, except in the form of peasant wood-See also:carving. The early stone idols (Kamenyia baby) and See also:primitive bas-reliefs belong to the sphere of See also:archaeology rather than of art. Real sculpture only appears at the end of the 18th century, when Peter the Great, to use his own expression, " opened a window upon Europe " and ordered, together with a See also:radical See also:change in Russian society, the introduction of western art in See also:Russia. From all See also:European countries artists streamed into Russia and helped to educate native talent, and at the same time the See also:tsar sent young artists abroad to study in foreign art centres. Among the foreign artists of this period were See also:Conrad Hausner, Egelgrener and Schpekle; among the Russians Koulomjin, Issaeiv and Woynow. About 1776 Falconet and his wife arrived in Russia; then Gillet, whose pupil Schubin ranks among Russia's most gifted artists. Among his best-known works is the monument of See also:Catherine II. His fame was rivalledby that of Schedrine. Kozlovski is known by his Souvorine monument. Other early sculptors of distinction were Demouth-Malinowski, the sculptor of the Soussaniev monument; Pimenow, See also:Martos, and the medallist Count Theodore Tolstoi, who is also known as an able illustrator. Orlovsky, Vitali and the whole preceding group represent the pseudo-classic character acquired at foreign See also:academies. Among animal sculptors Baron Klodt is known by his horses which decorate the Anitschkine See also:bridge at St See also:Petersburg. About the beginning of the 19th century the sculptor Kamenski inaugurated a more realistic tendency by his work which was inspired by contemporary life. He entered the academy after having exhibited a See also:series of sculptures among which the most interesting were " The First Step " and " Children in the See also:Rain." His contemporary Tschigoloff began his career in brilliant fashion, but devoted himself subsequently to the execution of commissions which did not give full See also:scope to his gifts. The greatest talent of all was unquestionably Marc Antokolsky (1845-1902), a Jewish sculptor permitted to work outside the See also:Pale, of whom the Paris correspondent of The Times wrote, about 1888, that French sculptors would benefit by studying under Antokolsky, and by learning from him the power of the inspiration drawn from the study of nature. The artist himself held his statue of See also:Spinoza to be his finest achievement. " I have put into this statue," he wrote, " all that is best in me. In the hard moments of life I can find See also:peace only before this work." Equally beautiful is " The Christian See also:Martyr," in the creation of which Antokolsky definitely broke all the fetters of tradition and strove no longer to See also:express linear beauty, but intense truth. The martyr is an ugly, deformed woman, tortured and suffering, but of such beautiful sentiment that under the influence of religious extasis her very soul seems to rise to the See also:surface. Among his other works few are better known than " See also:Mephistopheles " (which he wanted to call "The 19th Century ") and the powerful " See also:Ivan the Terrible," which the Russian critic Starsoff called " The Torturer Tortured." The whole See also:strange See also:psychology of this ruler, whose compeer in history can only be found perhaps in the See also:person of Louis XI., is strikingly expressed by Antokolsky. Very beautiful is the statue of Peter the Great, which breathes strength, intelligence, genius and devouring activity. To the works already mentioned must be added the statues of Ermak and of See also:Nestor. Antokolsky has See also:left to the world a gallery of the most striking figures in Russian history, giving to each one among them his proper psychology. His technique is always marked by perfect sureness and frequently by dazzling bravura. Antokolsky was twenty-one years of age when he left St Petersburg. The academy at that time was in a state of complete decadence, under the rule of worthy old professors who remained strangers to their pupils, just as their pupils remained strangers to them. When Professors Piminoff and Raimers died, soon after, the academy seemed quite deserted; but just at that time a number of very gifted students began to work with energy, learning all they could from one another, fired by the same purpose and spirit. Antokolsky was in close touch with his friend, the painter See also:Repin, with whom he worked much, and so failed to come under the influence of the idealist M. V. Praklow, who soon began to deliver certain lectures on art which excited keen interest among the young workers. Antokolsky tried the Berlin Academy of Fine Arts, but finding it ruled by the same routine, he returned before long to St Petersburg, where within a short time he executed the statue of " Ivan the Terrible to which he owed his fame. This See also:epoch became the starting-point of Russian sculpture, so that Antokolsky deserves an eminent position in the history of Russian art. Among his pupils was his faithful follower and friend Ilia Ginsbourg (b. 1859), who devoted himself to genre scenes and portraits in the spirit of his master, but with a degree of sincerity and enthusiasm which See also:save him from the reproach of See also:plagiarism. See also:Lancet-6 (1848–1887) is known by his military statuettes. Liberich (1828-1883) has left few remarkable works. Leopold Bernstamm always practised in Paris; among his works are a great number of portraits and a few monuments that are not without merit. Among con-temporary sculptors, whose number is still restricted in Russia, and whose artistic merit remains stationary, without marked progress and with little evidence of See also:evolution, are Beklemicheff, See also:Bach, Brodsky, Mikechine, Tourgeneff, See also:Auber and See also:Bernstein. Prince Troubetzkoi, who is counted among the sculptors of Russia, though he was educated and worked in Italy, acquired some reputation by his skill in the rapid execution of cleverly-wrought impressionist statuettes of figures and horses as well as busts. Their value lies in the vivid See also:representation they give of Russian life and types. Among the most original modern Russian sculptors is Naoum Aronson (b. 1872), whose best-known work is his Beethoven monument at See also:Bonn. At See also:Godesberg is his Narcissus fountain, whilst other works of his are at the Berlin, St Petersburg and See also:Dublin Museums. (M. H. S.; P. G. K.)
The early names in American sculpture—See also:Shem Drowne, the maker of See also:weather-vanes; See also:Patience See also:Wright (1725-1785); William
See also:United
See also:Rush (1765-1833), carver of portraits and of figure-heads states. for See also:ships; John Frazer (1740-185o), the stonecutter;
and See also:Hezekiah Augur (1791-1858)—have the interest of See also:chronicle at least. Hiram Powers (1805-1873) had a certain technical skill, and his statues of the " Greek Slave " (carved in 1843 in Rome and now at Raby castle, See also:Darlington, the seat of See also:Lord See also:Barnard, with a replica at the Corcoran Gallery, Washing-ton, and others elsewhere) and " Eve before the Fall " were important agents in overcoming the Puritanic abhorrence of the nude. Horatio See also:Greenough (1805-1852), See also:Joel T. See also:Hart (1810-1877), S. V. Clevenger (1812-1843) and See also:Clark See also:Mills (1815-1883) all received many commissions but made no additions to the See also:advancement of a true art-spirit. Thomas See also:Crawford (1814-1857) began the bas-reliefs for the bronze doors of the Capitol, and they were finished by William H. Rinehart (1825-1874), whose " See also:Latona " has considerable grace. See also: It is one of the noblest of equestrian statues in See also:America, both in breadth and certainty of handling and in actual See also:majesty, and reflects unwonted See also:credit on its' period. See also:Erastus D. See also:Palmer (1817-1904) was the first to introduce the lyrical note into American sculpture; his statue, " The See also: A. See also: It was however later that came that inspired modernity, that sympathy with the present, which are in some senses vital to genuinely emotional art. American sculpture, like American painting, was awakened by French example. The leading spirit in the new movement was See also:Augustus St Gaudens (q.v.), a great sculptor whose work is sufficiently dealt with in the See also:separate See also:article devoted to him. Two other Americans stand out, with St Gaudens, among their contemporaries, Daniel See also:Chester French (q.v.) and Frederick See also:Macmonnies (q.v.). French's " See also:Gallaudet teaching a See also:Deaf See also:Mute " is an example of how a difficult subject can be turned into a triumph of grace. His " Death and the Young Sculptor " is a singularly beautiful rendering of the idea of the intervention of death. In collaboration with E. C. See also:Potter he modelled various important groups,particularly " Indian See also:Corn " and the equestrian " Washington," in Paris. The " Bacchante " of Macmonnies, instinct with Renaissance feeling, is a triumph of modelling and of joyous See also:humour; while his statue of " Nathan See also:Hale " in City Hall Park, New York, his " Horse Tamers," and his triumphal See also:arch decorations for the Soldiers' and Sailors' Memorial at See also:Brooklyn, show the artist's power in the treatment of a serious theme. The strenuous achievements of George See also:Grey Barnard have both high skill and deep sincerity. His " Two Natures," his " Brotherly Love," his " See also:Pan "'and the See also:design for a monumental See also:Norwegian See also:stove are among the strongest efforts of modern American statuary. Ranking with him, though different in thought and method, stands Paul See also:Wayland See also:Bartlett. Success, too, artistically has been accorded to the fine works of John J. See also:Boyle, William Couper, twenty years of whose life were passed in Florence, William O. See also:Partridge, See also:Hermon See also:MacNeil and Lorado See also:Taft. The beautiful busts of See also:Herbert See also: See also:Pratt (" General See also:Benjamin F. See also: (M. H. S.) On Italian and Spanish sculpture, see See also:Vasari, Trattato della scultura (Florence, 1568, vol. i.), and his Vite dei pittori, &c., ed. See also:Milanesi (Florence, 188o); Rumohr, Italienische Forschungen (See also:Leipzig, 1827-1831) ; Dohme, Kunst and K%instler Italiens (Leipzig, 1879) ; See also:Perkins, Tuscan Sculptors (See also:London, 1865), Italian Sculptors (1868) and Hand-See also:book of Italian Sculpture (1883); See also:Robinson, Italian Sculpture (London, 1862) ; See also:Gruner, Marmor-Bildwerke der Pisaner (Leipzig, 1858); Ferreri, L' Arco di S. See also:Agostino (See also:Pavia, 1832); See also:Symonds, Renaissance in Italy (London, 1877), vol. iii. ; See also:Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Hist. of Painting in Italy (London, 1903) (new ed.), vol. i.; Selvatico, Arch. e scultura in Venezia (Venice, 1847) ; See also:Ricci, Storia dell' arch. in Italia (See also:Modena, 1857-186o) ; See also:Street (See also:Arundel Society), Sepulchral Monuments of Italy (1878); Gozzini, Monument% iepolcrali della Toscana (Florence, 1819); de Montault, La Sculpture religieuse d Rome (Rome, 1870), a French edition (with improved See also:text) of Tosi and Becchio, Monumenti sacri di See also:Roma (Rome, 1842); Cavallucci and See also:Molinier, Les Della Robbia (Paris, 1884) ; See also:Cicognara, Monumenti di Venezia (Venice, 1838-184o); See also:Barges and See also:Didron, Iconographie des chapitaux du palais ducal a See also:Venue (Paris, 1857) (see also See also:Ruskin's Stones of Venice) ; See also:Richter, " Sculpture of S. Mark's at Venice," See also:Macmillan's Mag. (See also:June 1880) ; Temanza, Vite degli scultori veneziani (Venice, 1778); Diedo and Zanotto, Monuments di Venezia (Milan, 1839); Schulz, Denkmaler der Kunst in Unter-Italien (See also:Dresden, 186o); Brinckmann, See also:Die Scul tur von B. See also:Cellini (Leipzig, 1867) ; Eug. Plon, Cellini, sa vie, &c. (Paris, 1882) ; John Addington Symonds, The Autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini (London, 1887); Moses and Cicognara, Works of Canova (London, 1824-1828) ; Piroli, See also:Fontana and others, a series of engraved Plates of Canova's Works, s.l. et a.; Giulliot, Les Artistes en Espagne (Paris, 187o); Carderera y Solano, Iconografia espanola., siglo XI-X VII (Madrid, 1855-1864); Monumentos arquitectonicos de Espana, published by the Spanish government (1859), passim; Lord Balcartes, The Evolution of Italian Sculpture (London, 1910) ; L. See also:Freeman, Italian Sculpture of the Renaissance (London, 1901) ; A. R. See also:Willard, Hist. of Modern Italian Art (London, 1898). The recent literature on the subject is too copious to be catalogued here; every phase of the art has been critically dealt with and nearly every sculptor of importance has been made the subject of a See also:biography; e.g. John Addington Symonds, The Life of Michelangelo Buonarroti, 2nd ed. (London, 1898); Sir Charles See also:Holroyd, Michael Angelo Buonarroti (London, 1903) ; Lord Balcarres, See also:Donatello (London, 1903) ; and G. H. See also: C. Brownell, French Art: Classic and Contemporary Painting and Sculpture (London, 1901); Male, L'Art religzeux du XIIIe siecle en France (Paris, 1902) ; Vitry and Briere, Documents de sculpture francaise du moyen age (Paris, 1904); Lady Dilke, French Architects and Sculptors of the X VIIIth Century (London, 1900) ; Lanislas Lami, Dictionnaire des sculpteurs de,l'ecole francaise du moyen dge au regne de Louis XIV (Paris, 1898), a useful book to consult for the See also:sake of the See also:bibliographical references to nearly every artist entered; L. Benedite, Les Sculptuurs See also:francais contemporains (Paris, 1901); E. Guillaume, " La Sculpture rangaise au XIX0 siecle," Gaz. des beaux-arts (1900). On See also:German sculpture, see Foerster, Denkmale deutscher Baukunst (Leipzig, 1855). For an adequate but brief and concentrated account of recent work see A. Heilmeyer, Die moderne Plasbik in Deutschland (See also:Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1903). On Austrian sculpture, see Camillo See also:List, Bildhauer-Arbeiten in Oesterreich- Ungarn (Vienna, 1901). On Belgian sculpture, see See also:Olivier Georges Destree, The Renaissance of Sculpture in Belgium (London, 1895). On Spanish sculpture, see Paul Laforid, La Sculpture espagnole (Paris, 1908). On English sculpture, see See also:Carter, Specimens of Ancient Sculpture (London, 1780) ; Aldis, Sculpture of See also:Worcester Cathedral (London, 1874) ; See also:Cockerell, Iconography of See also:Wells Cathedral (See also:Oxford, 1851) ; See also:Stothard, Monumental See also:Effigies of See also:Britain (London, 1817) ; See also:Westmacott, " Sculpture in See also:Westminster See also:Abbey," in Old London (pub. by Archaeological Institute, 1866), p. 159 seq ; G. G. See also:Scott, Gleanings from Westminster (London, 1862); W. See also:Bell Scott, British School of Sculpture (London, 1872) ; W. M. See also:Rossetti, " British Sculpture," in See also:Fraser's Meg. (April 1861). The subject of recent British sculpture has been curiously neglected, except in newspaper notices and occasional articles in the periodical press, such as Edmund See also:Gosse's " Living English Sculptors " in the Century See also:Magazine for See also:July 1883. The only See also:volume published is M. H. Spielmann's British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day (London, 1901). For American sculpture, see Henry T. Tuckerman, Book of the Artists: American Artist Life (New York, 187o, and later See also:editions) ; Lorado Taft, American Sculpture (New York and London, 1903) ; William J. Clark, Jnr., Great American Sculptures (See also:Philadelphia, 1877) ; Charles H. Caffin, American Masters of Sculpture (New York, 1903); Sadikichi See also:Hartmann, Modern American Sculpture (New York). Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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