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SPINOZA, BARUCH (1632-1677)
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See also:SPINOZA, See also:BARUCH (1632-1677) , or, as he afterwards signed himself, See also:Benedict de Spinoza, Dutch philosopher, was See also:born at See also:Amsterdam on the 24th of See also:November 163z. His parents belonged to the community of Jewish emigrants from See also:Portugal and See also:Spain who, fleeing from See also:Catholic persecution in the See also:Peninsula, had sought See also:refuge in the nearly emancipated See also:Netherlands. The name, variously written Espinoza, De Spinoza, D'Espinoza and Despinoza, probably points to the See also:province of See also:Leon as the previous See also:home of the See also:family; there are no fewer- than five See also:town-See also:ships so called in the neighbourhood of See also:Burgos. The philosopher's grandfather appears to have been the recognized See also:head of the Jewish community in Amsterdam in 1628; and his See also:father, See also:Michael Espinoza, was repeatedly See also:warden: of the See also:synagogue between 1630 and r65o. The father was a See also:merchant in See also:fair circumstances. He was thrice married and had. six See also:children all of whom predeceased him See also:save a daughter Rebekah, born of the first See also:marriage, and Baruch, the son of his second wife. Spinoza's See also:mother died in 1638 when the boy was barely six years old, and his father in 1654 when he was in his twenty-second See also:year. Spinoza received his first training under the See also:senior See also:rabbi, See also:Saul See also:Levi Morteira, and See also:Manasseh See also:ben See also:Israel, a theological writer of some See also:eminence whose See also:works show considerable knowledge of philosophical authors. Under these teachers he became See also:familiar with the See also:Talmud and, what was probably more important for his own development; with the philosophical writings of See also:Ibn See also:Ezra and See also:Maimonides, Levi ben See also:Gerson, Hasdai See also:Crescas, and other representatives of Jewish See also:medieval thought, who aim at combining the traditional See also:theology with ideas got from See also:Aristotle and his Neoplatonic commentators. Latin, still the universal See also:language of learning, formed no See also:part of Jewish See also:education; and Spinoza, after learning the elements from a See also:German See also:master, resorted for, further instruction to a physician named See also:Franz See also:van den Ende, who eked out an income by taking pupils. Van den Ende appears to have been distinctly a See also:man of parts, though of a somewhat indiscreet and erratic See also:character. He was eventually hanged in See also:Paris as a conspirator in 1694. His See also:enthusiasm for the natural sciences may have been the only ground for the reputation he had acquired of instilling atheistic nations into the minds of his pupils along with the Latin which he taught them. But it is quite possible that his scientific' studies had bred in him, as in many others at that See also:time, a materialistic, or at least a naturalistic, turn of mind; indeed, we should expect as much in a man of Van den Ende's somewhat rebellious temperament. We do not know whether his See also:influence was brought to See also:bear in this sense upon Spinoza; but it has been suggested that the writings of See also:Bruno, whose spirit of enthusiastic See also:naturalism and fervid revolt against the See also: The mastery of Latin which he acquired from Van den Ende opened up to Spinoza the whole See also:world of See also:modern See also:philosophy and See also:science, both represented at that time by the writings of See also:Descartes. He read him greedily, says Colerus, and afterwards often declared that he had all his philosophical knowledge from him. The impulse towards natural science which he had received from Van den Ende would be strengthened by the See also:reading of Descartes; he gave over divinity, we are told, to devote himself entirely to these new studies. His inward break with Jewish orthodoxy dated, no doubt, further back—from his acquaintance with the philosophical theologians and commentators of the See also:middle ages; but these new interests combined to estrange him still further from the traditions of the synagogue. He was seldomer seen at its services—soon not at all. The See also:jealousy of the heads of the synagogue was easily roused. An See also:attempt seems to have been made to draw from him his real opinions on certain prominent points of divinity. Two so-called friendsendeavoured, on the plea of doubts of their own, to See also:lead him into a theological discussion; and, some of Spinoza's expressions being repeated to the Jewish authorities, he was sumnioned to give an See also:account of himself. Anxious to retain so promising an adherent, and probably desirous at the same time to avoid public See also:scandal, the chiefs of the community offered him a yearly See also:pension of See also:i000 florins if he would outwardly conform and appear now and then in the synagogue. But such deliberate See also:hypocrisy was abhorrent to Spinoza's nature. Threats were equally unavailing, and accordingly on the 27th of See also:July 1656 Spinoza was solemnly cut off from the See also:commonwealth of Israel. The curses pronounced against him may be read in most of the See also:biographies. While negotiations were still pending, he had been set upon one evening by a fanatical See also:ruffian, who thought to expedite matters with the See also:dagger. Warned by this that Amsterdam was hardly a safe place of See also:residence for him any longer, Spinoza had already left the city before the See also:sentence of See also:excommunication was pronounced. He did not go far, but took up his See also:abode with a friend who lived some See also:miles out on the Old Church road. His See also:host belonged to the Collegiants or Rhijnsburgers, a religious society which had sprung up among the proscribed Arminians of See also: He was also fond of See also:drawing as an amusement in his leisure See also:hours; and Colerus had seen a See also:sketch-See also:book full of such drawings representing persons of Spinoza's acquaintance, one of them being alikeness of himself in the character of See also:Masaniello.
The five years which followed the excommunication must have been devoted to concentrated thought and study. Before their conclusion Spinoza had parted See also:company from Descartes, and the leading positions of his own See also:system were already clearly determined in his mind. A number of the younger men in Amsterdam—many of them students of See also:medicine or medical practitioners—had also come to regard him as their intellectual See also:leader. A See also:kind of philosophical See also:club had been formed, including among its members See also:Simon de Vries, See also: It is at least certain, from a reference in Spinoza's first See also:letter to See also:Oldenburg, that such a systematic exposition was in existence before See also:September 1661.1 There are two dialogues somewhat loosely incorporated with the See also:work which probably belong to a still earlier period. The short appendix, in which the attempt is made to See also:present the See also:chief points of the See also:argument in geometrical form, is a fore-runner of the See also:Ethics, and was probably written somewhat later than the See also:rest of the book. The See also:term " Nature" is put more into the foreground in the Treatise, a point which might be urged as See also:evidence of Bruno's influence—the dialogues, moreover, being specially concerned to establish the unity, infinity and selfcontainedness of Nature 2; but the two opposed Cartesian attributes, thought and See also:extension, and the absolutely See also:infinite substance whose attributes they are—substance constituted by infinite attributes—appear here as in the Ethics. The latter notion—of substance—is said to correspond exactly to " the essence of the only glorious and blessed God." The earlier differs from the later exposition in allowing an See also:objective causal relation between thought and extension, for which there is substituted in the Ethics the See also:idea of a thoroughgoing See also:parallelism. The Short Treatise is of much See also:interest to the student of Spinoza's philosophical development, for it represents, as See also:Martineau says, " the first landing-place of his mind in its See also:independent advance." Although the systematic framework of the thought and the terminology used are both derived from the Cartesian philosophy, the intellectual milieu of the time, the early work enables us, better than the Ethics to realize that the See also:inspiration and starting-point of his thinking is to be found in the religious speculations of his Jewish predecessors. The histories of philosophy may quite correctly describe his theory as the logical development of Descartes's doctrines of the one Infinite and the two finite substances, but Spinoza himself was never a Cartesian. He brought his See also:pantheism and his See also:determinism with him to the study of Descartes from the mystical theologians of his See also:race.
Early in 1661 Spinoza's host removed to Rhijnsburg near See also:Leiden, the headquarters of the Collegiant brotherhood, and Spinoza removed with him. The See also:house where they lived at Rhijnsburg is still See also:standing, and the road bears the name of Spinoza See also:Lane. Very soon after his See also:settlement in his new quarters he was sought out by See also: Another German version with introduction and notes has been published by See also:Sigwart based on a comparison of the two Dutch See also:MSS. A scholarly See also:English translation similarly equipped was published by A. See also:Wolf in 1910. 2 The fact that Spinoza nowhere mentions Bruno would not imply, according to the See also:literary habits of those days, that he was not acquainted with his speculations and even indebted to them. There is no mention, for example, of See also:Hobbes throughout Spinoza's See also:political See also:writing, and only one .casual reference to him in a letter, although the See also:obligation of the Dutch to the English thinker lies on the See also:surface. Accordingly, full See also:weight must be allowed to the See also:internal evidence brought forward by Sigwart, Avernarius and others to prove Spinoza's acquaintance with Bruno's writings. But the point remains quite doubtful and is in any See also:case of little importance. ' Heinrich Oldenburg (c. 1626–1678) was a native of See also:Bremen, but had settled in See also:England in the time of the commonwealth. Though hardly a scientific man himself, he had a genuine interest in science, and must have possessed social gifts. Ile was the friend ofregular correspondent—a third of the letters preserved to us are to or from him; and it appears from his first letter that their talk on this occasion was " on God, on infinite extension and thought, on the difference and the agreement of these attributes, on the nature of the See also:union of the human soul with the See also:body, as well as concerning the principles of the Cartesian and Baconian philosophies." Spinoza must, therefore, have unbosomed himself See also:pretty freely to his visitor on the See also:main points of his system. Oldenburg, however, was a man of no speculative capacity, and, to See also:judge from his subsequent correspondence, must have quite failed to grasp the real import and See also:scope of the thoughts communicated to him. From one of Oldenburg's early letters we learn that the treatise De intellectus emendatione was probably Spinoza's first occupation at Rhijnsburg. The nature of the work also bears out the supposition that it was first undertaken. It is, in a manner, Spinoza's " See also:organon "—the doctrine of method which he would substitute for the corresponding doctrines of See also: Not deeming it prudent to initiate the young man into his own system, he took for a textbook the second and third parts of Descartes's Principles, which See also:deal in the main with natural philosophy. As he proceeded he put Descartes's See also:matter in his own language and cast the whole argument into a geometric form. At the See also:request of his friends he devoted a fortnight to applying the same method to the first or metaphysical part of Descartes's philosophy, and the sketch was published in 1663, with an appendix entitled Cogitata metaphysica, still written from a Cartesian standpoint (defending, for example, the freedom of the will), but containing hints of his own doctrine. The book was revised by Dr Meyer for publication and furnished by him, at Spinoza's request, with a See also:preface in which it is expressly stated that the author speaks throughout not in his own See also:person but simply as the exponent of Descartes. A Dutch translation appeared in the following year.4 In 1663 Spinoza removed from Rhijnsburg to Voorburg, a suburban See also:village about 2 m. from the See also:Hague. His reputation had continued to spread. From Rhijnsburg he had paid frequent visits to the Hague, and it was probably the See also:desire See also:Boyle, and acquainted with most of the leaders of science in England as well as with many on the See also:Continent. He delighted to keep him-self in this way au courant with the latest developments, and lost no opportunity of establishing relations with men of scientific reputation. It was probably at the See also:suggestion of Huygens that he See also:bent his steps towards Spinoza's lodging. 4 The See also:title of the Latin original ran—Renati See also:des Cartes principiorum philosophiae pars i. et ii. more geometrico demonstratae per Benedictum de Spinoza Amstelodamensem. Accesserunt ejusdem cogitata metaphysica. to be within reach of some of the friends he had made in these visits—among others the De Witts—that prompted his changed residence. He had works in hand, moreover, which he wished in due time to publish; and in that connexion the friendly See also:patron-age of the De Witts might be of essential service to him. The first years at Voorburg continued to be occupied by the See also:composition of the Ethics, which was probably finished, however, by the summer of 1665. A See also:journey made to Amsterdam in that year is conjectured to have had reference to its publication. But, finding that it would be impossible to keep the authorship See also:secret, owing to the numerous hands through which parts of the book had already passed, Spinoza determined to keep his manuscript in his See also:desk for the present. In September 1665 we find Oldenburg twitting him with having turned from philosophy to theology and busying himself with angels, prophecy and miracles. This is the first reference to the Tractatus theologicopoliticus, which formed his chief occupation for the next four years. The aim of this treatise may be best understood from the full title with which it was furnished—Tractatus theologicopoliticus, continens dissertationes See also:aliquot, quibus ostenditur See also:libel-totem philosophandi non tantum salva pietate et reipubticae See also:pace posse concedi sed eandem nisi cum pace reipublicae ipsaque pietate tolli non posse. It is, in fact, an eloquently reasoned See also:defence of See also:liberty of thought and speech in speculative matters. The See also:external See also:side of See also:religion—its See also:rites and observances—must of See also:necessity be subject to a certain See also:control on the part of the See also:state, whose business it is to see to the preservation of decency and See also:order. But, with such obvious exceptions, Spinoza claims See also:complete freedom of expression for thought and belief; and he claims it in the interests alike of true piety and of the state itself. The thesis is less interesting to a modern reader—because now generally acknowledged—than the argument by which it is supported. Spinoza's position is based upon the thoroughgoing distinction See also:drawn in the book between philosophy, which has to do with knowledge and See also:opinion, and theology, or, as we should now say, religion, which has to do exclusively with obedience and conduct. The See also:aegis of religion, therefore, cannot be employed to cover with its authority any speculative doctrine; nor, on the other hand, can any speculative or scientific investigation be regarded as putting religion in See also:jeopardy. Spinoza undertakes to prove his case by the instance of the Hebrew Scriptures. Scripture deals, he maintains, in none but the simplest precepts, nor does it aim at anything beyond the obedient mind; it tells nought of the divine nature but what men may profitably apply to their lives. The greater part of the treatise is devoted to working out this See also:line of thought; and in so doing Spinoza consistently applies to the See also:interpretation of the Old Testament those canons of See also:historical exegesis which are often regarded as of comparatively recent growth. The treatise thus constitutes the first document in the modern science of Biblical See also:criticism. It was published in 167o, anonymously, printer and place of publication being likewise disguised (Hamburgi apud Heinricum Kitnraht). The See also:storm of opposition which it encountered showed that these precautions were not out of place. It was synodically condemned along with Hobbes's See also:Leviathan and other books as early as See also:April 1671, and was consequently interdicted by the states-See also:general of Holland in 1674; before long it was also placed on the See also:Index by the Catholic authorities. But that it was widely read appears from its frequent reissue with false title-pages, representing it now as an historical work and again as a medical treatise. Controversialists also crowded into the lists against it. A translation into Dutch appears to have been proposed; but Spinoza, who foresaw that such a step would only increase the commotion which was so distasteful to him, steadily set his See also:face against it. No Dutch translation appeared till 1693. The same year in which the Tractatus was published Spinoza removed from his suburban lodging at Voorburg into the Hague itself. He took rooms first on the Veerkay with the widow Van de Velde, who in her youth had assisted See also:Grotius to See also:escape from his captivity at Loewenstein. This was the house afterwards occupied by Colerus, the worthy Lutheran See also:minister who became Spinoza's biographer. But the widowinsisted on boarding her lodger, and Spinoza presently found the expense too See also:great for his slender See also:purse. He accordingly removed to a house on the Pavelioen Gracht near at hand, occupied by a painter called Van der Spijck. Here he spent the remaining years of his life in the frugal See also:independence which he prized. Colerus gives particulars which enable us to realize the almost incredible simplicity and See also:economy of his mode of life. He would say sometimes to the See also:people of the house that he was like the See also:serpent which forms a circle with its tail in its mouth, meaning thereby that he had nothing left at the year's end. His friends came to visit him in his lodgings, as well as others attracted by his reputation—Leibnitz among the rest—and were courteously entertained, but Spinoza preferred not to accept their offers of hospitality. He spent the greater part of his time quietly in his own chamber, often having his meals brought there and sometimes not leaving it for two or three days together when absorbed in his studies. On one occasion he did not leave the house for three months. " When he happened to be tired by having applied himself too much to his philosophical meditations, he would go downstairs to refresh himself, and discoursed with the Van der Spijcks about anything that might afford matter for an See also:ordinary conversation, and even about trifles. He also took See also:pleasure in smoking a See also:pipe of See also:tobacco; or, when he had a mind to divert himself somewhat longer, he looked for some See also:spiders and made them fight together, or he threw some flies into the cobweb, and was so well pleased with the result of that See also:battle that he would sometimes break into See also:laughter " (Colerus). He also conversed at times on more serious topics with the simple people with whom he lodged, often, for example, talking over the See also:sermon with them when they came from church. He occasionally went himself to hear the Lutheran pastor preach—the predecessor of Colerus—and would advise the Van der Spijcks not to See also:miss any sermon of so excellent a preacher. The children, too, he put in mind of going often to church, and taught them to be obedient and dutiful to their parents. One See also:day his See also:land-lady, who may have heard See also:strange stories of her solitary lodger, came to him in some trouble to ask him whether he believed she could be saved in the religion she professed. " Your religion is a good one," said Spinoza; " you need not look for another, nor doubt that you will be saved in it, provided that, while you apply yourself to piety, you live at the same time a peaceable and quiet life." Only once, it is recorded, did Spinoza's admirable self-control give way, and that was when he received the See also:news of the See also:murder of the De Witts by a frantic See also:mob in the streets of the Hague. It was in the year 1672, when the sudden invasion of the See also:Low Countries by Louis XIV. raised an irresistible clamour for a military leader and overthrew the republican constitution for which the De Witts had struggled. John De Witt had been Spinoza's friend, and had bestowed a small pension upon him; he had Spinoza's full sympathy in his political aims. On receiving the news of the brutal murder of the two See also:brothers, Spinoza burst into tears, and his indignation was so roused that he was bent upon publicly denouncing the See also:crime upon the spot where it had been committed. But the timely caution of his host prevented his issuing forth to almost certain death. Not long after Spinoza was himself in danger from the mob, in consequence of a visit which he paid to the See also:French See also:camp. He had been in correspondence with one See also:Colonel Stoupe, a Swiss theologian and soldier, then serving with the See also:prince of See also:Conde, the See also:commander of the French See also:army at See also:Utrecht. From him Spinoza received a communication enclosing a See also:passport from the French commander, who wished to make his acquaintance and promised him a pension from the French See also: " But, whilst I was busy with this," he writes, " the See also:report was spread everywhere that a certain book of mine was in the See also:press, wherein I endeavoured to show that there was no God; and this report found See also:credence with many. Whereupon certain theologians (themselves perhaps the authors of it) took occasion to complain of me to the prince and the magistrates; moreover, the stupid Cartesians, because they are commonly supposed to side with me, desiring to See also:free them-selves from that suspicion, were diligent without ceasing in their execrations of my doctrines and writings, and are as diligent still." As the commotion seemed to grow worse instead of subsiding, Spinoza consigned the manuscript once more to his desk, from which it was not to issue till after his death. His last literary work was the unfinished Tractatus politicus and the preparation of notes for a new edition of the Tractatus theologizes politicos, in which he hoped to remove some of the misunderstandings which the book had met with. The Tractatus polilicus develops his philosophy of See also:law and See also:government on the lines indicated in his other works, and connects itself closely with the theory enunciated by Hobbes a See also:generation before. See also:Consumption had been making its insidious inroads upon Spinoza for many years, and early in 1677 he must have been conscious that he was seriously See also:ill. On Saturday, the loth of February, he sent to Amsterdam for his friend Dr Meyer. On the following day, the Van der Spijcks, having no thought of immediate danger, went to the afternoon service. When they came back Spinoza was no more; he had died about three in the afternoon with Meyer as the only See also:witness of his last moments. Spinoza was buried on the 25th of February "in the new church upon the Spuy, being attended," Colerus tells us, " by many illustrious persons and followed by six coaches." He was little more than See also:forty-four years of age. Spinoza's effects were few and realized little more than was required for the See also:payment of charges and outstanding debts. " One need only cast one's eyes upon the account," says his biographer, " to perceive that it was the See also:inventory of a true philosopher. It contains only some small books, some engravings, a few lenses and the instruments to See also:polish them." His desk, containing his letters and his unpublished works, Spinoza had previously charged his landlord to convey to See also:Jan Rieuwertz, a publisher in Amsterdam. This was done, and the Opera posthuma appeared in the same year, without the author's name, but with his See also:initials upon the title-See also:page. They were furnished with a preface written in Dutch by Jarig Jellis, a Mennonite friend of Spinoza's, and translated into Latin by Dr Meyer. Next year the book was proscribed in a violently worded See also:edict by the states of Holland and See also:West See also:Friesland. The obloquy which thus gathered round Spinoza in the later years of his life remained settled upon his memory for a full See also:hundred years after his death. See also:Hume's casual allusion to " this famous atheist " and his " hideous See also:hypothesis " is a fair specimen of the See also:tone in which he is usually referred to; people talked about Spinoza, Lensing said, " as if he were a dead See also:dog." The See also:change of opinion in this respect may be dated from See also:Lessing's famous conversation with See also:Jacobi in 1780. Lensing, See also:Goethe, See also:Herder, See also:Novalis and See also:Schleiermacher, not to mention philosophers like See also:Schelling and See also:Hegel, See also:united in recognizing the unique strength and sincerity of Spinoza's thought, and in setting him in his rightful place among the speculative leaders of mankind. Transfused into their writings, his spirit has had a large See also:share in moulding the philosophic thought of the 19th See also:century, and it has also been widely influential beyond the See also:schools. Instead of his See also:atheism Hegel speaks of his acosmism, and Novalis dubs him a God-intoxicated man. Schleiermacher's See also:fine See also:apostrophe is well known, in which he calls upon us to " offer a See also:lock of See also:hair to the See also:manes of the See also:holy and excommunicated Spinoza." Spinoza's See also:personal See also:appearance is described by Colerus from the accounts given him by many people at the Hague who knew him familiarly. " He was of a middle See also:size, and had good features in his face, the skin somewhat dark, See also:black curled hair, and the long eyebrows of the same See also:colour, so that one might easily know from his looks that he was descended from the Portuguese See also:Jews." Leibnitz also gives a similar description: " The celebrated Jew Spinoza had an See also:olive complexion and something See also:Spanish in his face." These characteristics are preserved in a portrait in oil in the Wolfenbtittel library, which was probably the original of the (in that case unsuccessfully rendered) See also:engraving prefixed to the Opera posthuma of 1677. This portrait was photographed for Dr Martineau's Study of Spinoza. In 188o a statue was erected to Spinoza at the Hague by See also:international subscription among his admirers, and more recently the cottage in which he lived at Rhijnsburg has been restored and furnished with all the discoverable Spinoza See also:relics. Spinoza's philosophy is a thoroughgoing pantheism, which has both a naturalistic and a mystical side. The See also:foundation of the system is the doctrine of one infinite substance, of which all finite existences are modes or limitations (modes of thought or modes of extension). God is thus the immanent cause of the universe; but of creation or will there can be no question in Spinoza's system. God is used throughout as equivalent to Nature (See also:Deus See also:Ave natura). The philosophical standpoint comprehends the necessity of all that is—a necessity that is none other than the necessity of the divine nature itself. To view things thus is to view them, according to Spinoza's favourite phrase, sub specie aeternitatis. Spinoza's philosophy is fully considered in the See also:article See also:CARTESIANISM. The main authority for Spinoza's life is the sketch published in 1705, in Dutch, with a controversial sermon against Spmozism, by Johannes Colerus. The French version of this Life (1706) has been several times reprinted as well as translated into English and German. The English version, also dating from 1706, was reprinted by See also:Sir See also:Frederick See also:Pollock at the end of his Spinoza, his Life and Philosophy (188o). This book, Dr Martineau's Study of Spinoza (1882) and Dr John See also:Caird's Spinoza (1888), are all admirable pieces of work, and, as regards the philosophical estimate, See also:complement one another. H. H. See also:Joachim's Study of the Ethics of Spinoza (1901) and R. A. See also:Duff's Spinoza's Political and Ethical Philosophy (1903) are important contributions of more recent date. Careful research by Professor Freudenthal, Dr W. Meyer and Dr K. O. Meinsma has recently brought to See also:light a number of fresh details connected with Spinoza's life and increased our knowledge of his Jewish and Dutch environment. The earliest lives and all the available documents have been edited by Freudenthal in a single See also:volume, See also:Die Lebensgeschichte Spinozas (1899), on the basis of which he has since rewritten the Life, Spinozas Leben and Lehre, vol. i., Das Leben (1904). Meinsma's Spinoza and en zijn Kring (1896) appeared in a German translation in 1909. The new material has been judicially used by A. Wolf in the " Life " prefixed to his translation of the Short Treatise (1910), and the greater part of it also in the second edition of Sir Frederick Pollock's Spinoza (1899). (A. S. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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