See also:

• DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650)

Fortunately he went to no perilous lengths; the worst we hear of is a See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

Here, in his warm See also:

• ROOM

After paying his vows at Loretto, he came to See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Thrice only did he revisit France—in 1644, 1647 and 1648. The first of these occasions was in order to See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

The time thus spent seems to have been on the whole happy, even allowing for warm discussions with the mathematicians and metaphysicians of France, and for harassing controversies in the Netherlands. Friendly agents—chiefly Catholic priests—were the intermediaries who forwarded his See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

At Franeker his house was a small See also:

• CHATEAU (from Lat. castellum, fortress, through O. Fr. chastel, chasteau)

His wisdom grew mainly out of his own reflections and experiments. The See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

4 lb. vi. 123. 5 lb. x. 375. ' lb. ix. 6.morals,—the three applications of our knowledge to the outward world, to the human See also:

• BODY

Of See also:

• BACON
• BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H. Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon)
• BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS) (1561-1626)
• BACON, JOHN (1740–1799)
• BACON, LEONARD (1802–1881)
• BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-c. 1294)
• BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579)

10 lb. ix. 341. 11 lb. vi. 89. 12 lb. vi. 210. 13 lb. vi. 73. 14 Ib. vi. 239, ' Ib, vi. 248, nature which, under an See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

The book will contain four essays, all in French, with the general See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

The magisterial views seem to have prevailed in the professoriate, which formally in March 1642 expressed its disapprobation of the new philosophy as well as of its expositors. As yet Descartes was not directly attacked. Voet now issued, under the name of Martin Schoock, one of his pupils, a pamphlet with the title of Methodus novae philosophiae Renati Descartes, in which atheism and infidelity were openly declared to be the effect of the new teaching. Descartes replied to Voet directly in a letter, published at Amsterdam in 1643. He was summoned before the magistrates of Utrecht to defend himself against charges of irreligion and See also:

• SLANDER

250.laying especial emphasis on the priority of mind to body, and on the See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

Undoubtedly, says Descartes, the world was in the beginning created in all its perfection. "But yet as it is best, if we wish to understand the nature of See also:

• PLANTS

26. Spread of Cartesianism. civility, and the name of Descartes was no longer proscribed. But other annoyances were not wanting from unfaithful disciples and unsympathetic critics. The Instantiae of Gassendi appeared at Amsterdam in 1644 as a reply to the reply which Descartes had published of his previous objections; and the publication by Heinrich Regius of his work on physical philosophy (Fundamenta physices, 1646) gave the world to understand that he had ceased to be a thorough adherent of the philosophy which he had so enthusiastically adopted. It was about 1648 that Descartes lost his friends Mersenne and Mydorge by death. The place of Mersenne as his Parisian representative was in the main taken by Claude Clerselier (the French translator of the Objections and Responses), whom he had become acquainted with in Paris. Through Clerselier he came to know See also:

• PIERRE

An essay on the passions of the mind (Passions de l'dme), which had been written originally for the princess Elizabeth, in development of some ethical views suggested by the De vita beata of See also:

• SENECA

The queen wished to See also:

• BURY
• BURY, JOHN BAGNELL (1861- )

This is the reassertion of a principle which the See also:

• MIDDLE

The restriction of the early letters of the See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

The problem of the curves is solved by their reduction to a problem of straight lines; and the See also:

• LOCUS (Lat. for " place "; in Gr. rinros)

The other members of the group are relative and dependent, and only to be understood as in various degrees subordinate to the See also:

• PRIMITIVE

The Discourse of Method and the Meditations apply what the Rules for the Direction of the Mind had regarded in particular instances to our conceptions of the world as a whole. Funds-They propose, that is, to find a simple and indecom- mental posable point, or absolute element, which gives to the principles world and thought their order and systematization. ofphilo-The grandeur of this attempt is perhaps unequalled in soPh.v. the See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

4 Ruvres, xi. 243. 6 Ib. vii. 381. is no less natural to have recourse to authority to silence the doubt. The remedy proposed by Descartes is (while not neglecting our duties to others, ourselves and God) to let doubt range unchecked through the whole fabric of our customary convictions. One by one they refuse to render any reasonable account of themselves; each seems a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

Je pense, donc je suis. In other words, the criterion of truth is a clear and distinct conception, excluding all possibility of doubt. The fundamental point thus established is the veracity of consciousness when it does not go beyond itself, or does not postulate something which is See also:

• EXTERNAL

" The majority of men," he says himself, " do not think of God as an infinite and incomprehensible being, and as the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

All conceptions which do not possess these two attributes-of being vivid in themselves and discriminated from all others—cannot be true. But the larger part of our conceptions are in such a See also:

• PREDICAMENT

Such explanationof physical phenomena is the main problem of Descartes, and it goes on encroaching upon territories once supposed proper to the mind. Descartes began with the certainty that we are thinking beings; that region remains untouched; but up to its very borders the See also:

• MECHANICAL

The latter are to a large extent incorrect. The first law affirms that every body, so far as it is altogether unaffected by extraneous causes, always Cogito ergo Sum. Nature of Clod. perseveres in the same state of motion or of rest; and the second law that simple or elementary motion is always in a straight line.' These doctrines of inertia, and of the composite character of See also:

• CURVILINEAR

Taking for convenience a limited portion of the universe, we observe that in consequence Theory of vortices. of the circular movement, the particles of matter have their corners pared off by rubbing against each other; and two See also:

• SPECIES

47. velocity of the decaying star be greater than that of any part of the vortex which has swept it up, it will ere long pass out of the range of that vortex, and continue its movement from one to another. Such a star is a See also:

• COMET (Gr. Koµieiis, long-haired)

The great argument on which the Cartesians founded their opposition to the Newtonian doctrine was that attraction was an occult quality, not wholly intelligible by the aid of mere mechanics. The Newtonian theory is an analysis of the elementary movements which in their See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

His optical investigations are perhaps the subject in which he most contributed to the progress of science; and the lucidity of exposition which marks his Dioptrics stands conspicuous even amid the generally luminous See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

But the most remarkable and daring application of the theory was to account for the phenomena of organic life, especially in animals and man. " If we possessed a thorough knowledge," he says,' " of all the parts of the seed of any species of See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

One hypothesis supplants the various principles of life; the See also:

• RULE

And yet there is a unity of See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

339. 5 1b. x. 208. 3 lb. iv. 452 and 454. Optical theories. Cartesian professoriate, Wittich, Clauberg and Geulincx. Christoph Wittich (1625-1687), See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Such are the half-hearted attempts at consistency in Cartesian thought, which eventually culminate in the See also:

• PANTHEISM (Gr. 7rav, all, Oeos, god)

The Chateau of the duo de See also:

• LUYNES

The presentation of some object of dread, for example, to the eye has or may have a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

In his lifetime his views had been taught in Utrecht and Leiden. In the universities of the Netherlands and of lower Germany, as yet free from the conservatism of the old-established seats of learning, the new system gained an easy victory over Aristotelianism, and, as it was adapted for lectures and See also:

• EXAMINATIONS

On his visit to See also:

• TOULOUSE
• TOULOUSE, LOUIS ALEXANDRE DE BOURBON, COUNT OF (1678-1737)

Yet in 1675 the university of See also:

• ANGERS

And before 1725, readings, both public and private, were given from Cartesian texts in some of the Parisian colleges. But when this happened, Cartesianism was no longer either interesting or dangerous; its theories, taught as ascertained and verified truths, were as worthless as the systematic verbiage which preceded them. Already antiquated, it could not resist the wit and raillery with which See also:

• VOLTAIRE, FRANCOIS MARIE AROUET DE (1694–1778)

A. Borelli (1608–1679) as its most notable name, entered in a way on the mechanical study of anatomy suggested by Descartes, but was probably much more dependent upon the positive researches of Galileo. At See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF