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HOBBES, THOMAS (1588–1679)
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See also:HOBBES, See also: Hobbes was his See also:companion rather than tutor (before becoming secretary); and, growing greatly attached to each other, they were sent abroad together on the See also:grand tour in 161o. During this See also:journey, the duration of which cannot be precisely stated, Hobbes acquired some knowledge of See also:French and See also:Italian, and also made the important See also:discovery that the scholastic See also:philosophy which he had learned in Oxford was almost universally neglected in favour of the scientific and See also:critical methods of Galileo, See also:Kepler and See also:Montaigne. Unable at first to See also:cope with their unfamiliar ideas, he determined to become a See also:scholar, and until 1628 was engaged in a careful study of Greek and Latin authors, the out-come of which was his great See also:translation of See also:Thucydides. But when he had finished his See also:work he kept it lying by him Transrafor years, being no longer so sure of finding appreciative trop of readers; and when he did send it forth, in 1628, he was Th"cy' See also:fain to be content with " the few and better sort."I did". That he was finally determined to publication by the See also:political troubles of the year 1628 may be regarded as certain, not only from his own See also:express See also:declaration at a later time (Vit. carm. exp.), but also from unmistakable hints in the See also:account of the life and work of his author prefixed to the translation on its See also:appearance. This was the year of the See also:Petition of Right, extorted from the king in the third See also:parliament he had tried within three years of his See also:accession; and, in view of Hobbes's later activity, it is significant that he came forward just then, at the mature age of See also:forty, with his version of the See also:story of the Athenian See also:democracy as the first See also:production of his See also:pen. Nothing else is known 'of his doings I The translation, under the See also:title Eight Books of the Peloponnesian War, written by Thucydides the son of Olorus, interpreted with faith and See also:diligence immediately out of the Greek by Thomas Hobbes, secretary to the See also:late Earl of Devonshire, appeared in 1628 (or 1629), after the See also:death of the earl, to whom touching reference is made in the See also:dedication. It reappeared in 1634, with the date of the dedication altered, as if then newly written. Though Hobbes claims to have performed his work " with much more diligence than elegance,'.' his version is remarkable as a piece of English See also:writing, but is by no means accurate. It fills vols. viii. and ix. in See also:Molesworth's collection (it vols., including See also:index vol.) of Hobbes's English See also:Works (See also:London, See also:Bohn, 18,39–18g5). The volumes of this collection will here be cited as E.W. Molesworth's collection of the Latin See also:Opera philosophica (5 vols., 1839–1845) will be cited as L.W. The five See also:hundred and See also:odd Latin hexameters under the title De mirabilibus Pecci L.W. v. 323-340), giving an account of a short excursion from See also:Chatsworth to view the seven wonders of the See also:Derbyshire See also:Peak, were written before 1628 (in 1626 or 1627), though not published till 1636. It was a New Year's See also:present to his See also:patron, who gave him f5 in return. A later edition, in 1678, included an English version by another See also:hand.
II
before 1628, except that through his connexion with young a See also:mechanical See also:hypothesis as far back as 1630, the See also:inspiration may Cavendish he had relations with See also:literary men of See also:note like See also:Ben
See also:Jonson, and also with See also: This, his second, sojourn abroad appears to have been spent chiefly in See also:Paris, and the one important fact recorded of it is that he then first began to look into See also:Euclid. The engagement came to an end in 1631, when he was recalled to See also:train the young earl of See also:Devon-See also:shire, now thirteen years old, son of his previous See also:pupil. In the course of the next seven years in Derbyshire and abroad, Hobbes took his pupil over See also:rhetoric,' logic, See also:astronomy, and the principles of See also:law, with other subjects. His mind was now full of the thought of See also:motion in nature, and on the See also:continent he sought out the philosophical speculators or scientific workers. In See also:Florence in 1636 he saw Galileo, for whom he ever retained the warmest admiration, and spent eight months in daily converse with the members of a scientific circle in Paris, held together by Marin See also:Mersenne (q.v.). From that time (the See also:winter of 1636–1637) he too, as he tells us, was numbered among philosophers. His introduction to Euclid took See also:place accidentally in 1629 (Aubrey's Lives, p. 604). Euclid's manner of See also:proof became the See also:model for his own way of thinking upon all subjects. It is less easy to determine when he awoke to an interest in the See also:physical doctrine of motion. The story told by himself (Vit. p. xx.) is that, See also:hearing the question asked " What is sense ? " he See also:fell to thinking often on the subject, till it suddenly occurred to him that if bodies and their See also:internal parts were at See also:rest, or were always in the same See also:state of motion, there could be no distinction of anything, and consequently no sense; the cause of all things must therefore be sought in diversity of movements. Starting from this principle he was driven to See also:geometry for insight into the ground and modes of motion. The See also:biographies we possess do not tell us where or when this great change of interest occurred. Nothing is said, however, which contradicts a statement that on his third journey in See also:Europe he began to study the doctrine of motion more seriously, being interested in it before; and as he claims more than once (LW. V. 303; E.W. vii. 468) to have explained See also:light and See also:sound by ' Hobbes, in See also:minor works dealing with physical questions (L.W. iv. 316; E.W. vii. 112), makes two incidental references to Bacon's writings, but never mentions Bacon as he mentions Galileo, Kepler, See also:Harvey, and others (De corpore, ep. ded.), among the See also:lights of the See also:century. The word " See also:Induction," which occurs in only three or four passages throughout all his works (and these again minor ones), is never used by him with the faintest See also:reminiscence of the import assigned to it by Bacon; and, as will be seen, he had nothing but scorn for experimental work in physics. '' The See also:free English abstract of See also:Aristotle's Rhetoric, published in 1681, after Hobbes's death, as The Whole See also:Art of Rhetoric (E.W. vi. 423-510), corresponds with a Latin version dictated to his young pupil. Among Hobbes's papers preserved at Hardwick, where he died, there remains the boy's dictation-See also:book, interspersed with headings, examples, &c. in Hobbes's hand. be assigned to the time of the second journey. But it was not till the third journey that the new interest became an overpowering See also:passion, and the " philosopher " was on his way See also:home before he had advanced so far as to conceive the See also:scheme of a See also:system of thought to the elaboration of which his life should henceforth be devoted. Hobbes was able to carry out his See also:plan in some twenty years or more from the time of its conception, but the See also:execution was so broken in upon by political events, and so complicated with other labours, that its stages can hardly be followed without some previous understanding of the relations of the parts of the scheme, as there is reason to believe they were sketched out from the beginning. His scheme was first to work out, in a See also:separate See also:treatise De See also:cor See also:pore, a systematic doctrine of See also:Body, showing how physical phenomena were universally explicable in terms of motion, as motion or mechanical See also:action was then (through Galileo and others) understood—the theory of motion being applied in the light of mathematical See also:science, after quantity, the subject-matter of See also:mathematics, had been duly considered in its place among the fundamental conceptions of philosophy, and a clear indication had been given, at first starting, of the logical ground and method of all philosophical inquiry. He would then single out Man from the See also:realm of nature, and, in a treatise De homine, show what specific bodily motions were involved in the production of the See also:peculiar phenomena of sensation and knowledge, as also of the affections and passions thence resulting, whereby man came into relation with man. Finally he would consider, in a crowning treatise De cive, how men, being naturally rivals or foes, were moved to enter into the better relation of Society, and demonstrate how this grand product of human wit must be regulated if men were not to fall back into brutishness and misery. Thus he proposed to unite in one coherent whole the separate phenomena of Body, Man and the State. Hobbes came home, in 1637, to a See also:country seething with discontent. The reign of " Thorough " was collapsing, and the forces pent up since 1629 were soon to rend the fabric of the state. By these events Hobbes was distracted from the orderly execution of his philosophic plan. The Short Parliament, as he tells us at a later time (E.W. iv. 414), was not dissolved before he had ready " a little treatise in English," in which he sought to prove that the points of the royal See also:prerogative which the members were determined to dispute before granting supplies " were inseparably annexed to the See also:sovereignty which they did not then deny to be in the king." Now it can be proved that at this time he had written not only his Human Nature but also his De cor pore politico, the two See also:treatises (though published separately ten years later) having been composed as parts of one work;3 and there cannot be the least question that together they make " the little treatise " just mentioned. We are there-fore to understand, first, that he wrote the earliest draft of his political theory some years before the outbreak of the Civil War, and, secondly, that this earliest draft was not written till, in accordance with his philosophical conception, he had established the grounds of polity in human nature. The first point is to be noted, because it has often been supposed that Hobbes's political doctrine took its peculiar complexion from his revulsion against the state of anarchy before his eyes, as he wrote during the progress of the Civil War. The second point must be maintained against his own implied, if not express, statement some years later, when See also:publishing his De cive (L.W. ii. 151), that he wrote this third part of his system before he had been able to set down any finished See also:representation of the fundamental doctrines which it presupposed. In the beginning of 1640, therefore, he had written out his doctrine of Man at least, with almost as much elaboration as it ever received from him.
In See also:November 164o the See also:Long Parliament succeeded to the Short, and sent See also:Laud and See also:Strafford to the See also:Tower, and Hobbes, who had become, or thought he had become, a marked m parts.. man by the circulation of his treatise (of which,
" though not printed, many gentlemen had copies "), hastened to Paris, " the first of all that fled." He was now for the See also:fourth and last time abroad, and did not return for eleven years. Apparently he remained the greater part of the time in or about
' Among the Hardwick papers there is preserved a MS. copy of the work, under the title Elementes of Law Naturall and Politique, with the dedication to the earl of See also:Newcastle, written in Hobbes's own hand, and dated May 9, 1640. This dedication was prefixed to the first thirteen chapters of the work when printed by themselves, under the title Human Nature in 1650.
Paris. He was welcomed back into the scientific coterie about Mersenne, and forthwith had the task assigned him of criticizing the Meditations of See also:Descartes, which had been sent from See also: About the same time also Mersenne sent to Descartes, as if they came from a friend in See also:England, another set of objections which Hobbes had to offer on various points in the scientific treatises, especially the Dioptrics, appended by Descartes to his Discourse on Method in 1637; to which Descartes replied without suspecting the See also:common authorship of the two sets. The result was to keep the two thinkers apart rather than bring them together. Hobbes was more eager to bring forward his own philosophical and physical ideas than careful to enter into the full meaning of another's thought; and Descartes was too jealous, and too confident in his conclusions to See also:bear with this See also:kind of criticism. He was very curt in his replies to Hobbes's philosophical objections, and See also:broke off all See also:correspondence on the physical questions, writing privately to Mersenne that he had See also:grave doubts of the Englishman's good faith in See also:drawing him into controversy (L.W. v. 277-307). Meanwhile Hobbes had his thoughts too full of the political theory which the events of the last years had ripened within him to See also:settle, even in Paris, to the orderly See also:composition of his works. Though connected in his own mind with his view of human nature and of nature generally, the political theory, as he always declared, could stand by itself. Also, while he may have hoped at this time to be able to add much (though he never did) to the See also:sketch of his doctrine of Man contained in the unpublished " little treatise," he might extend, but could hardly otherwise modify, the sketch he had there given of his carefully articulated theory of Body Politic. Possibly, indeed, before that sketch was written early in 164o, he may, under pressure of the political excitement, have advanced no small way in the actual composition of the treatise De Cive, the third See also:section of his projected system. In any See also:case, it was upon this section, before the others, that he set to work in Paris; and before the end of 1641 the book, as we know from the date of the dedication (November 1), was finished. Though it was forthwith printed in the course of the year 1642, he was content to circulate a limited number of copies privately 1; and when he found his work received with See also:applause (it was praised even by Descartes), he seems to have taken this recognition of his philosophical achievement as an additional reason for deferring publication till the earlier works of the system were completed. Accordingly, for the next three or four years, he remained steadily at work, and nothing appeared from him in public except a short treatise on See also:optics (Tractatus opticus, L.W. v. 217-248) included in the collection of scientific tracts published by Mersenne under the title Cogitata physico-mathematica in 1644, and a highly compressed statement of his psychological application of the doctrine of motion (L.W. v. 309-318), incorporated with Mersenne's Ballistica, published in the same year. Thus or otherwise he had become sufficiently known by 1645 to be chosen as a See also:referee, with Descartes, See also:Roberval and others, in the famous controversy between John See also:Pell (q.v.) and the Dane See also:Longomontanus (q.v.) over that problem of the squaring of the circle which was seen later on to have such a fatal See also:charm for himself. But though about this time he had got ready all or most of the materials for his fundamental work on Body, not even now was he able to make way with its composition,
1 The book, of which the copies are rare (one in Dr See also:Williams's library in London and one in the Bodleian), was printed in See also:quarto See also:size (Paris, 1642), with a pictorial title-See also:page (not afterwards reproduced) of scenes and figures illustrating its three divisions, " Libertas," Imperium," " Religio." The title Elementorum philosophise sectio tertia, De rive, expresses its relation to the unwritten sections, which also comes oift in one or rwo bacl references hi the See also:text.and when he returned to it after a number of years, he returned a different man.
The Civil War had broken out in 1642, and the royalist cause began to decline from the time of the defeat at See also:Marston See also:Moor, in the See also:middle of 1644. Then commenced an See also:exodus of the king's See also:friends. Newcastle himself, who was a See also:cousin of Hobbes's late patron and to whom he dedicated the " little treatise " of 164o, found his way to Paris, and was followed by a stream of fugitives, many of whom were known to Hobbes. The sight of these exiles made the political interest once more predominant in Hobbes, and before long the revived feeling issued in the formation of a new and important See also:design. It first showed itself in the publication of the De cive, of which the fame, but only the fame, had extended beyond the inner circle of friends and critics who had copies of the See also:original impression. Hobbes now entrusted it, early in 1646, to his admirer, the Frenchman See also:Samuel de Sorbiere, by whom it was seen through the See also:Elzevir See also:press at See also:Amsterdam in 1647—having previously inserted a number of notes in reply to objections, and also a striking See also:preface, in the course of which he explained its relation to the other parts of the system not yet forthcoming, and the (political) occasion of its having been composed and being now published before them.2 So hopeless, meanwhile, was he growing of being able to return home that, later on in the year, he was on the point of leaving Paris to take up his See also:abode in the See also:south with a French friend,3 when he was engaged " by the See also:month " as mathematical instructor to the young See also:prince of See also:Wales, who had come over from See also:Jersey about the month of See also:July. This engagement lasted nominally from 1646 to 1648 when
See also: The De cive, presently to be published, was written in Latin for the learned, and gave the political theory without its See also:foundation in human nature. The unpublished treatise of 164o contained all or nearly all that he had to tell concerning human nature, but was written before the terrible events of the last years had disclosed how men might still be urged by their See also:anti-social passions back into the See also:abyss of anarchy. There was need of an exposition at once comprehensive, incisive and popular. The State, it now seemed to Hobbes, might be regarded as a great artificial man or See also:monster (Leviathan), composed of men, with a life that might be traced from its See also:generation through human reason under pressure of human needs to its See also:dissolution through civil strife proceeding from human passions. This, we may suppose, was the presiding conception from the first, but the design may have been variously modified in the three or four years of its execution. Before the end, in 1650-165r, it is See also:plain that he wrote in See also:direct reference to the greatly changed aspect of affairs in England. The king being dead, and the royalist cause appearing to be hopelessly lost, he did not See also:scruple, in closing the work with a See also:general " See also:Review and Conclusion," to raise the question of the subject's right to change See also:allegiance when a former See also:sovereign's See also:power to protect was irrecoverably gone. Also he took See also:advantage of the See also:rule of the See also:Commonwealth to indulge much more freely than he might have otherwise dared in rationalistic criticism of religious doctrines; while, amid the turmoil of sects, he could the more, forcibly urge_that the preservation of social See also:order, when again firmly restored, must depend on the See also:assumption by the civil power of the right 1L.W. ii. 133-134. In this first public edition (12m0), the title was changed to Elementa philosophica de cive, the references in the text to the previous sections being omitted. The date of the dedication to the young earl of Devonshire was altered from 1641 to 1616. Described as "nobilis Languedocianus " in Vit. ; doubtless the same with the " See also:Dominus Verdusius, nobilis Aquitanus," to whom was dedicated the Exam. et emend. math, had. (L.W. iv.) in 166o. Du Verdus was ene of Hobbes's profoundest admirers and most frequent correspondents in later years; there are many of his letters among Hobbes's papers at Hardwick. to wield all sanctions, supernatural as well as natural, against the pretensions of any See also:clergy, See also:Catholic, See also:Anglican or Presbyterian, to the exercise of an imperium in imperio. We know the Leviathan only as it finally emerged from Hobbes's pen. During the years of its composition he remained in or near Paris, at first in attendance on his royal pupil, with whom he became a great favourite. In 1647 Hobbes was overtaken by a serious illness which disabled him for six months. Mersenne begged him not to See also:die outside the See also:Roman Catholic Church, but Hobbes said that he had already considered the matter sufficiently and afterwards took the See also:sacrament according to the See also:rites of the Church of England. On recovering from this illness,which nearly proved fatal, he resumed his literary task, and carried it steadily forward to completion by the year 1650, having also within the same time translated into English, with characteristic force of expression, his Latin treatise. Otherwise the only thing known (from one or two letters) of his life in those years is that from the year 1648 he had begun to think of returning home; he was then sixty, and might well be weary of See also:exile. When 165o came, as if to prepare the way for the reception of his magnum See also:opus, he allowed the publication of his earliest treatise, divided into two separate small volumes (Human Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policy, E.W. iv. 1-76, and De Corpore Politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Politic, pp. 77—228),1 In 16512 he published his translation of the De Cive under the title of Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society (E.W. ii.). Meanwhile the See also:printing of the greater work was proceeding, and finally it appeared about the middle of the same year, 1651, under the title of Leviathan, or the Matter, Form and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil (E.W. iii.), with a See also:quaint See also:frontispiece in which, from behind hills overlooking a See also:fair landscape of See also:town and country, there towered the body (above the See also:waist) of a crowned See also:giant, made up of tiny figures of human beings and bearing See also:sword and See also:crozier in the two hands. It appeared, and soon its author was more lauded and decried than any other thinker of his time; but the first effect of its publication was to sever his connexion with the exiled royalist party, and to throw him for See also:protection on the revolutionary Government. No sooner did copies of the book reach Paris than he found himself shunned by his former associates, and though he was himself so little conscious of disloyalty that he was forward to present a See also:manuscript copy " engrossed in vellum in a marvellous fair hand"3 to the young king of the Scots (who, after the defeat at See also:Worcester, escaped to Paris about the end of See also:October), he was denied the royal presence when he sought it shortly afterwards. Straightway, then, he saw himself exposed to a See also:double peril. The exiles had among them desperadoes who could slay; and, besides exciting the enmity of the Anglican clergy about the king, who bitterly resented the secularist spirit of his book, he had compromised himself with the French authorities by his elaborate attack on the papal system. In the circumstances, no resource was left him but See also:secret See also:flight. Travelling with what See also:speed he could in the depths of a severe winter and under the effects of a See also:recent second) illness, he managed to reach London, where, sending to his submission to the See also:council of state, he was allowed to subside into private life. Though Hobbes came back, after his eleven years' See also:absence, without having as yet publicly proved his title to See also:rank with the natural philosophers of the age, he was sufficiently conscious of what he had been able to achieve in Leviathan; and it was 1 The Human Nature corresponds with cc. i.-xiii. of the first part of the original treatise. The remaining six chapters of the part stand now as Part I. of the De corpore politico. Part II. of the D.C.P. corresponds with the original second part of the whole work. s At the beginning of this year he wrote and published in Paris a See also:letter on the nature and conditions of See also:poetry, chiefly epic, in See also:answer to an See also:appeal to his See also:judgment made in the preface to Sir W. See also:Davenant's heroic poem, Gondibert (E.W. iv.441–458). The letter is dated See also:Jan. io, 165o (1650/!). ' This presentation copy, so described by See also:Clarendon (Survey of the Leviathan, 1676, p. 8), is doubtless the beautifully written and finely See also:bound MS. now to be found in the See also:British Museum (See also:Egerton See also:MSS. 1910).in no humble See also:mood that he now, at the age of sixty-four, turned to See also:complete the fundamental treatise of his philosophical system. Neither those whom his masterpiece soon roused to See also:enthusiasm, nor those whom it moved to :tit" indignation, were likely to be indifferent to anything Lon/0g. he should now write, whether it See also:lay near to or far from the region of practice. Taking up his abode in Fetter See also:Lane, London, on his return, and continuing to reside there for the See also:sake of intellectual society, even after renewing his old ties with the earl of Devonshire, who lived in the country till the Restoration,' he worked so steadily as to be printing the De corpore in the year 1654. Circumstances (of which more presently), however, kept the book back till the following year, and meanwhile the readers of Leviathan had a different excitement. In 1654 a small treatise, " Of See also:Liberty and See also:Necessity " (E.W. iv. 229-278), issued from the press, claiming to be an answer to a discourse on the same subject by See also:Bishop Bramhall contro-ith of See also:Londonderry afterwards See also:archbishop of See also:Armagh, versy w ( Bramhall. d. 1663), addressed by Hobbes to the See also:marquis of Newcastle.5 It had grown out of an oral discussion between Hobbes and Bramhall in the marquis's presence at Paris in 1646. Bramhall, a strong Arminian, had afterwards written down his views and sent them to Newcastle to be answered in this form by Hobbes. Hobbes duly replied, but not for publication, because he thought the subject a delicate one. But it happened that Hobbes had allowed a French acquaintance to have a private translation of his reply made by a young Englishman, who secretly took a copy of the original for himself; and now it was this unnamed purloiner who, in 1654, when Hobbes had become famous and feared, gave it to the See also:world of his own motion, with an extravagantly laudatory See also:epistle to the reader in its front. Upon Hobbes himself the publication came as a surprise, but, after his plain speaking in Leviathan, there was nothing in the piece that he need scruple to have made known, and he seems to have condoned the See also:act. On the other hand, Bramhall, supposing Hobbes privy to the publication, resented the manner of it, especially as no mention was made of his rejoinder. Accordingly, in 655, he printed everything that had passed between them (under the title of A See also:Defence of the True Liberty of Human Actions from Antecedent or Extrinsic Necessity), with loud complaint against the treatment he had received, and the promise added that, in See also:default of others, he himself would stand forward to expose the deadly principles of Leviathan. About this time Hobbes had begun to be hard pressed by other foes, and, being never more sure of himself than upon the question of the will, he appears to have welcomed the opportunity thus given him of showing his strength. By 1656 he was ready with his Questions concerning Liberty, Necessity and See also:Chance (E.W. v.), in which he replied with astonishing force to the bishop's rejoinder point by point, besides explaining the occasion and circumstances of the whole debate, and reproducing (as Bramhall had done) all the pieces from the beginning. As perhaps the first clear exposition and defence of the psychological doctrine of See also:determinism, Hobbes's own two pieces must ever retain a classical importance in the See also:history of the free-will controversy; while Bramhall's are still See also:worth study as specimens of scholastic fence. The bishop, it should be added, returned to the See also:charge in 1658 with ponderous Castigations of Mr Hobbes's Animadversions, and also made good his previous See also:threat in a bulky ' During all the time he was abroad he had continued to receive from his patron a yearly See also:pension of 8o, and they remained in steady. correspondence. The earl, having sided with the king in 1642, was declared unfit to sit in the See also:House of Peers, and though, by submission to Parliament, he recovered his estates when they were sequestered later on, he did not sit again till 166o. Among Hobbes's friends at this time are specially mentioned John See also:Selden and William Harvey, who left him a See also:legacy of £Io. According to Aubrey, Selden left him an equal See also:bequest, but this seems to be a See also:mistake. Harvey (not Bacon) is the only Englishman he mentions in the dedicatory epistle prefixed to the De corpore, among the founders, before himself, of the new natural philosophy.
5 The treatise See also:bore the date, " See also:Rouen, Aug. 20, 1652," but it should have been 1646, as afterwards explained by Hobbes himself (E.W. v. 25).
appendix entitled The Catching of Leviathan the Great See also:Whale. Hobbes never took any See also:notice of the Castigations, but ten years later replied to the charges of See also:atheism, &c., made in the non-political part of the appendix, of which he says he then heard for the first time (E.W. iv. 279-384). This Answer was first published after Hobbes's death.'
We may now follow out the more troublesome conflict, or rather See also:series of conflicts, in which Hobbes became entangled from the Contra- time of publishing his De corpore in 1655, and which Coat with checkered all his remaining years. In Leviathan he had
Walla vehemently assailed the system of the See also:universities, as
and originally founded for the support of the papal against the civil authority, and as still working social See also:mischief
See also: This was said in reference to the boasts in which Hobbes seems to have been freely indulging of having squared the circle and accomplished other such feats; and, when a year later the De corpore (L. W. i.) finally appeared, it was seen how the thrust had gone home. In the See also:chapter (xx.) of that work where Hobbes dealt with the famous problem whose See also:solution he thought he had found, there were left expressions against Vindex (Ward) at a time when the solutions still seemed to him good; but the solutions themselves, as printed, were allowed to be all in different ways halting, as he naively confessed he had discovered only when he had been driven by the insults of malevolent men to examine them more closely with the help of his friends. A See also:strange conclusion this, and reached by a path not less strange, as was now to be disclosed by a relentless hand. Ward's colleague, the more famous John See also:Wallis (q.v.), Savilian professor of geometry from 1649, had been privy to the See also:challenge thrown out in 1654, and it was arranged that they should critically dispose of the De corpore between them. Ward was to occupy himself with the philosophical and physical sections, which he did in leisurely See also:fashion, bringing out his criticism in the course of next year (In Th. Ilobbii philosophiam exercitatio epistolica). Wallis was to confine himself to the mathematical chapters, and set to work at once with characteristic See also:energy. Obtaining an unbound copy of the De corpore, he saw by the mutilated appearance of the sheets that Hobbes had repeatedly altered his demonstrations before he issued them at last in their actual form, See also:grotesque as it was, rather than delay the book longer. Obtaining also a copy of the work as it had been printed before Hobbes had any doubt of the validity of his solutions, Wallis was able to track his whole course from the time of Ward's provocation—his passage from exultation to doubt, from doubt to confessed See also:impotence, yet still without abandoning the old assumption of confident strength; and all his turnings and windings were now laid See also:bare in one of the most trenchant pieces of controversial writing ever penned. Wallis's Elenchus geometriae Hobbianae, published in 1655 about three months after the De corpore, contained also an elaborate criticism of Hobbes's whole See also:attempt to relay the See also:foundations of mathematical science in its place within the general body of reasoned knowledge—a criticism which, if it failed to allow for the merit of the conception, exposed only too effectually the utter inadequacy of the result. Taking up mathematics when not only his mind was already formed but his thoughts were crystallizing into a philosophical system, Hobbes had, in fact, never put himself to school and sought to work up gradually to the best knowledge of the time, but had been more anxious from the first to become himself an innovator with whatever insufficient means. The consequence was that, when not spending himself in vain attempts to solve the impossible problems that have always waylaid the See also:fancy of self-sufficient beginners, he took an interest only in the elements of geometry, and never had any notion of the full See also:scope of mathematical science, undergoing as it then was (and not least at the hands of Wallis) the extraordinary development which made it before the end of the century the potent See also:instrument of physical discovery which it became in the hands of ;See also:Newton. He was even unable, in dealing with the elementary conceptions of geometry, to work out with any consistency the few original thoughts he had, and thus became the easy See also:sport of Wallis. At his advanced age, however, and with the sense he had of his powers, he was not likely to be brought to a better mind by so insulting an opponent. He did indeed, before allowing an English ' " The Vit. auct. refers to 1676, a Letter to William See also:duke of Newcastle on the Controversy about Liberty and Necessity, held with See also:Benjamin Laney, bishop of See also:Ely.' In that year there did appear a (conf used) little See also:tract written by Laney against Hobbes's concluding statement of his own ' See also:Opinion ' in the ' Liberty and Necessity ' r~ 1654 (1646), but I can find no trace of any further writing by Hobbes on the subject " (G. Croom See also:Robertson, Hobbes, p. 202).translation of the De corpore (E.W. i.) to appear in 1656, take care to remove some of the worst mistakes exposed by Wallis, and, while leaving out all the references to Vindex, now profess to make, in altered form, a series of See also:mere " attempts " at See also:quadrature; but he was far from yielding the ground to the enemy. With the translation,' in the See also:spring of 1656, he had ready Six Lessons to the Professors of Mathematics, one of Geometry, the other of Astronomy, in the University of Oxford (E.W. vii. 181-356), in which, after reasserting his view of the principles of geometry in opposition to Euclid's, he proceeded to repel Wallis's objections with no lack of dialectical skill, and with an unreserve equal to Wallis's own. He did not scruple, in the ardour of conflict, even to maintain positions that he had resigned in the translation, and he was not afraid to assume the offensive by a See also:counter criticism of three of \Vallis's works then published. When he had thus disposed of the Paralogisms ' of his more formidable antagonist in the first five lessons, he ended with a See also:lesson on " See also:Manners " to the two professors together, and set himself gravely at the See also:close to show that he too could be abusive. In this particular part of his task, it must be allowed, he succeeded very well; his criticism of Wallis's works, especially the great treatise Arithnzetica infinitorum (1655), only showed how little able he was to enter into the meaning of the See also:modern See also:analysis. Wallis, on his See also:side, was not less ready to keep up the See also:game in English than he had been to begin it in Latin. See also:Swift as before to strike, in three months' time he had deftly turned his own word against the would-be master by administering Due Correction for Mr Hobbes, or School Discipline for not saying his Lessons right, in a piece that differed from the Elenchus only in being more biting and unrestrained. Having an easy task in defending himself against Hobbes's trivial criticism, he seized the opportunity given him by the English translation of the De corpore to track Hobbes again step by step over the whole course, and now to confront him with his incredible inconsistencies multiplied by every new utterance. But it was no longer a fight over mathematical questions only. Wallis having been betrayed originally by his fatal cleverness into the pettiest carping at words, Hobbes had retorted in kind, and then it became a high See also:duty in the other to defend his Latin with great See also:parade of learning and give fresh provocation. One of Wallis's rough sallies in this kind suggested to Hobbes the title of the next rejoinder with which, in 1657, he sought to close the unseemly wrangle. Arguing in the Lessons that a mathematical point must have quantity, though this were not reckoned, he had explained the Greek word 0-T LTA, used for a point, to mean a visible See also:mark made with a hot See also:iron; whereupon he was charged by Wallis with See also:gross See also:ignorance for confounding or&yuit and orryna. Hence the title of his new piece: Ercy,uai ayswnerpias, aypocKtas, avrrrroXcretas, dnaOeias, or Marks of the Absurd Geometry, Rural See also:Language, Scottish Church Politics, and Barbarisms of John Wallis, Professor of Geometry and See also:Doctor of Divinity (E. W. vii. 357-400). He now attacked more in detail but not more happily than before Wallis's great work, while hardly attempting any further defence of his own positions; also he repelled with some force and dignity the insults that had been heaped upon him, and fought the verbal points, but could not leave the See also: Before the strife flamed up again, Hobbes had published, in 1658, the outstanding section of his philosophical system, and thus completed, after a fashion, the scheme he had planned more than twenty years before. So far as the treatise De homine (L.W. ii. 11-32) was concerned, the completion was more in name than in fact. It consisted for the most part of an elaborate theory of See also:vision which, though very creditable to Hobbes's scientific insight, was out of place, or at least out of proportion, in a philosophical See also:consideration of human nature generally. The See also:remainder of the treatise, dealing cursorily with some of the topics more fully treated in the Human Nature and the Leviathan, has all the appearance of having been tagged in haste to the See also:optical chapters (composed years before) as This translation, Concerning Body, though not made by Hobbes, was revised by him; but it is far from accurate, and not seldom, at critical places (e.g. c. vi. § 2), quite misleading." Philosophical citations from the De corpore should always be made in the original Latin. Molesworth reprints the Latin, not from the. first edition of 1655, but from the modified edition of 1668—modified, in the mathematical chapters, in general (not exact) keeping with the English edition of 1656. The Vindex See also:episode, referred to in the Six Lessons, becomes intelligible only by going beyond Molesworth to the original Latin edition of 1655. They were composed originally, in a somewhat different and rather more extended form, as the second part of an English treatise on Optics, completed by the year 1646. Of this treatise, preserved in Harleian MSS. 336o, Molesworth otherwise prints the dedication to the marquis of Newcastle, and the concluding paragraphs (E.W. vii. 467-471)- 550 a makeshift for the proper transition required in the system from questions of Body Natural to questions of Body Politic. Hobbes had in fact spent himself in his earlier constructive efforts, and at the age of seventy, having nothing to add to his doctrine of Man as it was already in one form or another before the world, was content with anything that might stand for the fulfilment of his philosophical purpose. But he had still in him more than twenty years of vigorous vitality, and, not conscious to himself of any shortcoming, looked forward, now his hands were free, to doing See also:battle for his doctrines. Rather than remain quiet, on finding no notice taken of his latest production, he would himself force on a new conflict with the enemy. Wallis having meanwhile published other works and especially a comprehensive treatise on the general principles of calculus (See also:Mathews universalis, 1657), he might take this occasion of exposing afresh the new-fangled methods of mathematical analysis and reasserting his own earlier positions. .Accordingly, by the spring of 166o, he had managed to put his criticism and assertions into five dialogues under the title Examinatio et emendatio mathematicae hodiernae quails explicatur in libris Johannis Wallisii, with a See also:sixth See also:dialogue so called, consisting almost entirely of seventy or more propositions on the circle and See also:cycloid.' Wallis, however, would not take the bait. Hobbes then tried another tack. Next year, having solved, as he thought, another See also:ancient crux, the duplication of the See also:cube, he had his solution brought out anonymously at Paris in French, so as to put Wallis and other critics off the See also:scent and extort a judgment that might be withheld from a work of his. The artifice was successful, and no sooner had Wallis publicly refuted the solution than Hobbes claimed the See also:credit of it, and went more wonderfully than ever astray in its defence. He presently republished it (in modified form), with his remarks, at the end of a new Latin dialogue which he had meanwhile written in defence of another part of his philosophical doctrine. This was the Dialogus physicus, sive De natura aeris (L.W. iv. 233-296), fulminated in. 1661 against See also:Boyle and other friends of Wallis who, as he fancied, under the See also:influence of that malevolent spirit, were now in London, after the Restoration, forming themselves into a society (incorporated as the Royal Society in 1662) for experimental See also:research, to the exclusion of himself See also:person-ally, and in direct contravention of the method of physical inquiry enjoined in the De corpore.2 All the laborious manipulation recorded in Boyle's New Experiments touching the Spring of the See also:Air (166o), which Hobbes See also:chose, without the least See also:warrant, to take as the manifesto of the new " academicians," seemed to him only to See also:con-See also:firm the conclusions he had reasoned out years before from speculative principles, and he warned them that if they were not content to begin where he had left off their work would come to nought. To as much of this diatribe as concerned himself Boyle quickly replied with force and dignity, but it was from Hobbes's old enemy that retribution came, in the scathing See also:satire Hobbius heauton-timorumenos (1662). Wallis, who had deftly steered his course amid all the political changes of the previous years, managing ever to be on the side of the ruling power, was now apparently stung to fury by a wanton allusion in Hobbes's latest dialogue to a passage of his former life (his deciphering for the parliament the king's papers taken at See also:Naseby), whereof he had once boasted but after the Restoration could not speak or hear too little. The revenge he took was crushing. Professing to be roused by the attack on his friend Boyle, when he had scorned to lift a See also:finger in defence of himself against the earlier dialogues, he tore them all to shreds with an art of which no general description can give an See also:idea. He got, however, upon more dangerous ground when, passing wholly by the political insinuation against himself, he roundly charged Hobbes with having written Leviathan in support of See also:Oliver's title, and deserted his royal master in See also:distress. Hobbes seems to have been fairly bewildered by the See also:rush and whirl of See also:sarcasm with which Wallis drove him anew from every mathematical position he had ever taken up, and did not venture forth into the field of scientific controversy again for some years, when he had once followed up the physical dialogue of 1661 by seven shorter ones, with the inevitable appendix, entitled Problemata physica, una cum magnitudine circuli (L.W. iv. 297-384), in 1662.3 ' L.W. iv. 1-232. The propositions on the circle, forty-six in number (shattered by Wallis in 1662), were omitted by Hobbes when he republished the Dialogues in 1668, in the collected edition of his Latin works from which Molesworth reprints. In the part omitted, at p. 154 of the original edition, Hobbes refers to his first introduction to Euclid, in a way that confirms the story in Aubrey quoted in an earlier See also:paragraph. 2 Remaining at Oxford, Wallis, in fact, took no active part in the constitution of the new society, but he had been, from 1645, one of the originators of an earlier association in London, thus continued or revived. This earlier society had been continued also at Oxford after the year 1649, when Wallis and others of its members received appointments there. 3 The Problemata physica was at the same time put into English (with some changes and omission of part of the mathematical appendix), and presented to the king, to whom the work was dedicated in a remarkable letter apologizing for Leviathan. In its English form, as Seven Philosophical Problems and Two Propositions of Geometry (E.lt'. vii. 1-68), the work was first published in 1682; after Hobbes's death. But all the more eagerly did he take advantage of Wallis's loose calumny to strike where he See also:felt himself safe. His answer to the personal charges took the form of a letter about himself in the third person addressed to Wallis in 1662, under the title of Considerations upon the Reputation, See also:Loyalty, Manners and See also:Religion of Thomas Hobbes (E.W. iv. 409-440). In this piece, which is of great See also:biographical value, he told his own and Wallis's " little stories during the time of the late See also:rebellion " with such effect that Wallis, like a See also:wise man, attempted no further reply. Thus ended the second bout. After a time Hobbes took See also:heart again and began a third period of controversial activity, which did not end, on his side, till his ninetieth year. Little need be added to the See also:simple See also:catalogue of the untiring old man's labours in this last See also:stage of his life. The first piece, published in 1666, De principiis et ratiocinatione geometrarum (L. W. iv. 385-484), was designed, as the sub-title declared, to See also:lower the See also:pride of geometrical professors by showing that there was no less uncertainty and See also:error in their works than in those of physical or ethical writers. Wallis replied shortly in the Philosophical Transactions (See also:August 1666). Three years later he brought his three great achievements together in compendious form, Quadratura circuli, Cubatio sphaerae, Duplicatio cubi, and as soon as they were once more refuted by Wallis, reprinted them with an answer to the objections, in compliment to the grand-duke of See also:Tuscany, who paid him attentions on a visit to England in 1669 (L.W. iv. 485-522). Wallis, who had promised to leave him alone henceforward, refuted him again before the year was out. In 1671 he worked up his propositions over again in Rosetum geometricum (L. W. v. 1-5o), as a fragrant offering to the geometrical reader, appending a criticism (Censura brevis, pp. 50-88) on the first part of Wallis's treatise De molls, published in 1669; also he sent Three Papers to the Royal Society on selected points treated very briefly, and when Wallis, still not weary of confuting, shortly replied, published them separately with triumphant Considerations on Dr Wallis's Answer to them (E.W. vii. 429-448). Next year (1672), having now, as he believed, established himself with the Royal Society, he proceeded to complete the discomfiture of Wallis by a public address to the Society on all the points at issue between them from the beginning, Lux Mathematica excussa collisionibus Johannis Wallisii et Thomae Hobbesii (L.W. v. 89-15o), the light, as the author R. R. (Roseti Repertor) added, being here " increased by many very brilliant rays." Wallis replied in the Transactions, and then finally held his hand. Hobbes's energy was not yet exhausted. In 1674, at the age of eighty-six, he published his Principia et problemata See also:aliquot geometrica, ante desperata nunc breviter explicate et demonstrata (L.W. v. 150-214), containing in the chapters dealing with questions of principle not a few striking observations, which ought not to be overlooked in the study of his philosophy. His last piece of all, Decameron physiologicum (E.W. vii. 69-18o), in 1678, was a new set of dialogues on physical questions, most of which he had treated in a similar fashion before; but now, in dealing with See also:gravitation, he was able to See also:fire a parting shot at Wallis; and one more demonstration of the equality of a straight See also:line to the arc of a circle, thrown in at the end, appropriately closed the strangest warfare in which perverse thinker ever engaged.' We must now turn back to trace the fortunes of Hobbes and his other doings in the last twenty years of his life. All these controversial writings on mathematics and physics represent but one See also:half of his activity after the age of Later Years. seventy; though, as regards the other half, it is not possible, for a reason that will be seen, to say as definitely in what order the works belonging to the period were produced. From the time of the Restoration he acquired a new prominence in the public See also:eye. No year had passed since the appearance of Leviathan without some indignant protest against the influence which its trenchant doctrine was calculated to produce upon minds longing above everything for civil repose; but after the Restoration " Hobbism " became a fashionable creed, which it was the duty of every See also:lover of true morality and religion to denounce. Two or three days after Charles's arrival in London, Hobbes See also:drew in the See also:street the notice of his former pupil, and was at once received into favour. The young king, if he had ever himself resented the apparent disloyalty of the " Conclusion " of Leviathan, had not retained the feeling long; and could appreciate the principles of the great book when the application of them happened, as now, to be turned in his own favour. He had, besides, a relish for Hobbes's wit (as he used to say, " Here comes the bear to be baited "), and did not like the old man the less because his presence at See also:court scandalized the bishops or the See also:prim virtue of See also:Chancellor See also:Hyde. He even went the length of bestowing on Hobbes (but not always paying) a, pension of £See also:loo, and had his portrait hung up in the royal
4 Wallis's pieces were excluded from the collected edition of his works (1693-1697), and have bocome extremely rare,
closet. These marks of favour, naturally, did not lessen Hobbes's self-esteem, and perhaps they explain, in his later writings, a certain slavishness toward the See also:regal authority, which is wholly absent from his rational demonstration of See also:absolutism in the earlier works. At all events Hobbes was satisfied with the rule of a king who had appreciated the author of Leviathan, and protected him when, after a time, protection in a very real sense became necessary. His eagerness to defend himself against Wallis's imputation of disloyalty, and his apologetic dedication of the Problemata physica to the king, are evidence of the hostility with which he was being pressed as early as 1662; but it was not till 1666 that he felt himself seriously in danger. In that year the Great Fire of London, following on the Great Plague, roused the superstitious fears of the See also:people, and the House of See also:Commons embodied the general feeling in a See also:bill against atheism and profaneness. On the 17th of October it was ordered that the See also:committee to which the bill was referred " should be empowered to receive See also:information touching such books as tend to atheism, See also:blasphemy and profaneness, or against the essence and attributes of See also:God, and in particular the book published in the name of one See also: 385-408), he aimed at showing that, since the High Court of See also:Commission had been put down, there remained no court of heresy at all to which he was amenable, and that even when it stood nothing was to be declared heresy but what was at variance with the Nicene Creed, as he maintained the doctrine of Leviathan was not. The only consequence that came of the See also:parliamentary scare was that Hobbes could never afterwards get permission to See also:print anything on subjects See also:relating to human conduct. The collected edition of his Latin works (in two quarto volumes) appeared at Amsterdam in 1668, because he could not obtain the See also:censor's See also:licence for its publication at London, Oxford or See also:Cambridge. Other writings which he had finished, or on which he must have been engaged about this time, were not made public till after his death—the king apparently having made it the See also:price of his protection that no fresh provocation should be offered to the popular sentiment. The most important of the works composed towards 1670, and thus kept back, is the extremely spirited dialogue to which he gave the title See also:Behemoth: the History of the Causes of the Civil See also:Wars of England and of the Counsels and Artifices by which they were carried on from the year 164o to the year 166o.2 To the same period probably belongs the unfinished Dialogue between a Philosopher and a Student of the Common See also:Laws of England (E.W. vi. 1-16o), a trenchant criticism of the constitutional theory of English government as upheld by See also:Coke. Aubrey takes credit for having tried to induce Hobbes to write upon the subject in 1664 by presenting him with a copy of Bacon's Elements of the Laws of England, and though the attempt was then unsuccessful, Hobbes later on took to studying the See also:statute-book, with Coke upon See also:Littleton. One other posthumous production also (besides the tract on Heresy before mentioned) may be referred to this, if not, as Aubrey suggests, an earlier time—the two thousand and odd elagiac verses in which he gave his The De medio animarum statu of Thomas White, a heterodox Catholic See also:priest, who contested the natural See also:immortality of the soul. White (who died 1676) and Hobbes were friends. rz E.W. vi. 161-418. Though Behemoth was kept back at the king's express See also:desire, it saw the light, without Hobbes's leave, in t679, before his death.view of ecclesiastical encroachment on the civil power; the quaint verses, disposed in his now favourite dialogue-form, were first published, nine years after his death, under the title Historia ecclesiastica (L.W. v. 341-408), with a preface by Thomas See also:Rymer.
For some time Hobbes was not even allowed to utter a word of protest, whatever might be the occasion that his enemies took to See also:triumph over him. In 1669 an unworthy follower—See also:Daniel Scargil by name, a See also:fellow of Corpus Christi See also:College, Cambridge—had to recant publicly and confess that his evil life had been the result of Hobbist doctrines. In 1674 John Fell, the See also:dean of See also:Christ Church, who bore the charges of the Latin translation of See also:Anthony See also:Wood's History and Antiquities of the University of Oxford (167o), struck out all the complimentary epithets in the account of his life, and substituted very different ones; but this time the king did suffer him to defend himself by publishing a dignified letter (Vit. Auct. pp. xlvii.-l.), to which Fell replied by adding to the translation when it appeared a note full of the grossest insults. And, amid all his troubles, Hobbes was not without his consolations. No Englishman of that day stood in the same repute abroad, and foreigners, See also:noble or learned, who came to England, never forgot to pay their respects to the old man, whose vigour and freshness of See also:intellect no progress of the years seemed able to quench. Among these was the grand-duke of Tuscany (See also: Even as late as August 1679 he was promising his publisher " somewhat to print in English." The end came very soon afterwards. A suppression of urine in October, in spite of which he insisted upon being conveyed with the family from Chatsworth to Hardwick Hall towards the end of November, was followed by a paralytic stroke, under which he sank on the 4th of See also:December, in his ninety-second year. He lies buried in the neighbouring church of Ault Hucknall. He was tall and erect in figure, and lived on the whole a temperate life, though he used to say that he had been drunk about a hundred times. His favourite exercise was See also:tennis, which he played regularly even after the age of P18 pD °tr, seventy. Socially he was genial and courteous, though istks, in See also:argument he occasionally lost his See also:temper. As a friend he was generous and loyal. Intellectually bold in the extreme, he was curiously timid in See also:ordinary life, and is said to have had a horror of ghosts. He read little, and often boasted that he would have known as little as other men if he had read as much. He appears to have had an illegitimate daughter for whom he made generous See also:provision. In the See also:National Portrait See also:Gallery there is a portrait of him by J. M. See also:Wright, and two others are In the See also:possession of the Royal Society.
As already suggested, it cannot be allowed that Hobbes falls into any See also:regular See also:succession from Bacon; neither can it be said that he handed on the See also:torch to See also:Locke. He was the one English thinker of the first rank in the long period See also:Play in of two generations separating Locke from Bacon, but, hnought. See also:save in the See also:chronological sense, there is no true relation
of succession among the three. It would be difficult even to prove any ground of See also:affinity among them beyond a desposition to take sense as a See also:prime See also:factor in the account of subjective experience: their common interest in physical science was shared
5'52
equally by rationalist thinkers of the Cartesian school, and was indeed begotten of the time. Backwards, Hobbes's relations are rather with Galileo and the other inquirers who, from the beginning of the 17th century, occupied themselves with the physical world in the manner that has come later to be distinguished by the name of science in opposition to philosophy. But even more than in See also:external nature, Hobbes was interested in the phenomena of social life, presenting themselves so impressively in an age of political revolution. So it came to pass that, while he was unable, by reason of imperfect training and too tardy development, with all his pains, to make any contribution to physical science or to mathematics as instrumental in physical research, he attempted a task which no other adherent of the new " mechanical philosophy " conceived—nothing less than such a universal construction of human knowledge as would bring Society and Man (at once the matter and maker of Society) within the same principles of scientific explanation as were found applicable to the world of Nature. The construction was, of course, utterly premature, even supposing it were inherently possible; but it is Hobbes's distinction, in his century, to have conceived it, and he is thereby lifted from among the scientific workers with whom he associated to the rank of those philosophical thinkers who have sought to order the whole domain of human knowledge. The effects of his philosophical endeavour may be traced on a variety of lines. Upon every subject that came within the sweep of his system, except mathematics and physics, his thoughts have been productive of thought. When the first See also:storm of opposition from smaller men had begun to die down, thinkers of real See also:weight, beginning with See also:Cumberland and See also:Cudworth, were moved by their aversion to his analysis of the moral nature of man to probe anew the question of the natural springs and the rational grounds of human action; and thus it may be said that Hobbes gave the first impalse to the whole of that See also:movement of ethical See also:speculation that, in modern times, has been carried on with such remarkable continuity in England. In politics the revulsion from his particuar conclusions did not prevent the more clear-sighted of his opponents from recognizing the force of his supreme demonstration of the See also:practical irresponsibility of the sovereign power, wherever seated, inthe state; and, when in a later age the foundations of a positive theory of legislation were laid in England, the school of See also:Bentham—See also: Finally, the See also:psychology of Hobbes, though too undeveloped to See also:guide the thoughts or even perhaps See also:arrest the See also:attention of Locke, when essaying the scientific analysis of knowledge, came in course of time (chiefly through James Mill) to be connected with the theory of associationism See also:developed from within the school of Locke, in different ways, by See also:Hartley and See also:Hume; nor is it surprising that the later associationists, fin See also:ling their principle more distinctly formulated in the earlier thinker, should sometimes have been betrayed into affiliating themselves to Hobbes rather than to Locke. For his ethical theories see Erxics.
Sufficient information is given in the Vitae Hobbianae auctarium (LW. i. p. lxv. ff.) concerning the frequent early See also:editions of Hobbes's separate works, and also concerning the works of those who wrote against him, to the end of the 17th century. In the 18th century, after See also: (See also:Leipzig, 1873). Important later editions are those of Ferdinand Tunnies, Behemoth (1889), on which see Croom Robertson's Philosophical Remains (1894); p. 451; Elements of Law (1889). Biographical and Critical Works.—There are three accounts of Hobbes's life, first published together in 1681, two years after his death, by R. B. (See also:Richard Blackbourne, a friend of Hobbes's admirer, John Aubrey), and reprinted, with complimentary verses by See also:Cowley and others, at the beginning of Sir W. Molesworth's collection of the Latin Works: (1) T. H. Malmesb. vita (pp. xiii.-xxi.), written by Hobbes himself, or (as also reported) by T. Rymer, at his dictation ; (2) Vitae Hobbianae auctarium (pp. xxii.-Ixxx.), turned into Latin from Aubrey's English; (3) T. H. Malmesb. vita See also:carmine expresso (pp. lxxxi.-xcix.), written by Hobbes at the age of eighty-four (first published by itself in 1680). The Life of Mr T. H. of Malmesburie, printed among the Lives of Eminent Men, in 1813, from Aubrey's papers in the Bodleian, &c. (vol. ii. pt. ii. pp. 593-637), contains some interesting particulars not found in the Auctarium. All that is of any importance for Hobbes's life is contained in G. Croom Robertson's Ilobbes (1886) in See also:Blackwood's Philosophical See also:Classics, and Sir See also:Leslie See also:Stephen's Hobbes (1904) in the " English Men of Letters " series, both of which See also:deal fully with his philosophy also. See also F. T(:nnics, Hobbes Leben and Lehre (18)6), Hobbes-Analekten (1904 See also:foil.); G. Zart, Einfluss der englischen Philosophic seit Bacon auf die deutsche Philosophic des 1Sten Jahrh. (See also:Berlin, ,881); G. Brandt, Thomas Hobbes: Grundlinien seiner Philosophic (1895) ; G. See also:Lyon, La Philos. de Hobbes (1893) ; J. M. Robertson, See also:Pioneer Humanists (1907) ; J. Rh kaby, Free Will and Four English Philosophers (1906), pp. 1-72; J. See also:Watson, Hedonistic Theories (1895); W. See also:Graham, English Political Philosophy from Hobbes to See also:Maine (1899) ; W. J. H. See also:Campion, Outlines of Lectures on Political Science (1895). (G. C. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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