See also:

• CROMWELL, HENRY (1628-1674)
• CROMWELL, OLIVER (1599-1658)
• CROMWELL, RICHARD (1626–1712)
• CROMWELL, THOMAS, EARL OF

See also:

• VANE (formerly spelt " fane," i.e. pennon, flag; cf. Ger. Feline, Du. vaan, Fr. girouette, Ital. banderuola, Ger. Wellerfahne)
• VANE, SIR HENRY (1589-1654)
• VANE, SIR HENRY (1613-1662)

John he was intimately associated with the leaders Parlitaary of the See also:

• PARLIAMENTARY

On the 14th of See also:

• JANUARY

" Do you think," he had said, " that the See also:

• SPIRITS

He remained at Lincoln, did nothing to prevent the defeat of Essex's army in the west, and when he at last advanced south to join Essex's and Waller's troops his management of the army led to the failure of the attack upon the king at See also:

• NEWBURY

His services were See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

The war being now over, the great question of the establishment of Presbyterianism or Independency had to be decided. Cromwell, without naming himself an adherent of any See also:

• DENOMINATION (Lat. denominare, to give a specific name to)

In May 1647 in See also:

• COMPANY

It will be conveyed over to posterity." The army See also:

• FACTION (through the French, from Lat. factio, a company of persons combined for action, facere, to do; from the other French derivative facon comes " fashion ")

This was strongly opposed by Cromwell, who declared the very consideration of it had dangers, that it would bring upon the country " utter confusion " and " make England like See also:

• SWITZERLAND

This See also:

• ALLIANCE

He then marched north into See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

This event, the turning-point in Cromwell's career, casts a See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

It is true that Puritan austerity and the lack of any strong central authority after Oliver's See also:

• DEATH

Cromwell, who was as a See also:

• RULE

A just See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

Cromwell determined to turn his antagonist's position. He sent 14,000 men into Fifeshire and marched to See also:

• PERTH
• PERTH, EARLS AND DUKES OF

These triumphs, however, had all been obtained by force of arms; the more difficult task now awaited Cromwell of governing England by parliament and by law. As See also:

• MILTON
• MILTON, JOHN (1608–1674)

I will put an end to your sitting." By his directions Harrison then fetched in a small See also:

• BAND

The Protector and the council together were given a life tenure of office, with a large army and a settled See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

The Long Parliament had ordered a strict observance of See also:

• SUNDAY

He appointed visitors for the universities and great public schools, and defended the universities from the attacks of the extreme sectaries who clamoured for their abolition, even Clarendon allowing that Oxford " yielded a See also:

• HARVEST (A.S. hcerfest " autumn," O.H. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. car pere, " to pluck ")

Complete toleration in fact was only extended to Protestant nonconformists, who composed the Cromwellian established church, and who now meted out to their antagonists the same treatment which they themselves were later to receive under the Clarendon See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

Doctrines directly attacking See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

The two great Roman Catholic powers now both bid for Cromwell's alliance. Cromwell wisely inclined towards France, for Spain was then a greater menace than France alike to the Protestant cause and to the growth of British trade in the western.hemisphere; but as no concessions could be gained from either France or Spain, the year 1654 closed without a treaty being made with either. In December 1654 See also:

• PENN, WILLIAM (1621–1670)
• PENN, WILLIAM (1644-1718)

Such was the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

" He once more joined us to the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

In 1658 Colonel See also:

• EDWARD

Cromwell was thus inevitably drawn farther along the path of arbitrary government. He arrested the persons who refused to pay taxes, and sent Cony's lawyers to the Tower. Hitherto he had been scrupulously impartial in raising the best men to the judicial See also:

• BENCH (an O.E. and Eng. form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Bank, Dan. baenk and the Eng. doublet " bank ")

On the 25th of March the Remonstrance, now termed the Petition and See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

The revolts of royalists and sectaries against his government had been easily suppressed, and the various attempts to assassinate him, contemptuously referred to by Cromwell as " little fiddling things," were anticipated and prevented by an excellent system of See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

On the 31st of August he seemed to rally, and one who slept in his bedchamber Death. and who heard him praying, declared, " a public spirit to God's cause did breathe in him to the very last." During the next few days he grew weaker and resigned himself to death. " I would," he said, " be willing to be further serviceable to God and his people, but my work is done." For the first time doubts as to his spiritual state seemed to have troubled him. " Tell me is it possible to fall from See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

Cromwell, on the other hand, was forty-three when he fought in his first battle. In less than two years he had taken his See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

As a horsemaster he was far superior to See also:

• MURAT, JOACHIM (1767—1815)

The contrast between a campaign of Cromwell's and one of Turenne's is far more than remarkable, and the observation of a military critic who maintains that Cromwell's art of war was two centuries in advance of its time, finds universal acceptance. At a time when throughout the rest of Europe armies were manoeuvring against one another with no more than a formal result, the English and Scots were fighting decisive battles; and Cromwell's battles were more decisive than those of any other See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

It is when he is contrasted with other commanders, not of the age of Louis XIV., but of the Civil War, that Cromwell's greatness is most conspicuous. Whilst others busied themselves with the application of the accepted rules of the Dutch, the German, and other formal schools of tactical thought, Cromwell almost alone saw clearly into the heart of the questions at issue, and evolved the strategy, the tactics, and the training suited to the work to which he had set his hand: Cromwell's career as a statesman has been already traced in its different See also:

• SPHERES, MUSIC OF THE

A new foundation had to be laid on which a new system of legality might be reared. It was for this that Cromwell strove. If the Rump or the Little Parliament had in a business-like spirit assumed and discharged the functions of a constituent assembly, such a foundation might have been provided. It was only when five years had passed since. the death of the king without any " settlement of the nation " being arrived at, that Cromwell at last accepted a constitution drafted by his military officers, and attempted to impose it on the parliament. And it was not until the parliament refused to acknowledge the Instrument as the required starting point for the new legality, that Cromwell in the last resort took arbitrary power into his hands as the only method remaining for carrying on the government. For much as he hated arbitrariness, he hated anarchy still more. While therefore Cromwell's administration became in practice little different from that of Strafford, the aims and ideals of the two statesmen had nothing in common. It is therefore profoundly true, as observed by S. R. See also:

• GARDINER
• GARDINER, JAMES (1688-1745)
• GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON (1829–1902)
• GARDINER, STEPHEN (c. 1493–1555)

Cromwell's personal character has been inevitably the subject of unceasing controversy. According to Clarendon he was " a brave See also:

• BAD, BCD

A larger soul I think hath seldom dwelt in a house of See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

J.