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VOTE

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Originally appearing in Volume V28, Page 217 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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VOTE and VOTING. The Latin votum, derived from vovere, not expressly make See also:

provision for concealing the identity of the to See also:vow, meant a See also:solemn promise, hence a wish, See also:desire or See also:prayer, , See also:person registering the vote is " open." Some methods of in which senses the doublet " vow," derived through See also:French, voting still employed (as in the See also:case of See also:parliamentary elections is used now chiefly. " Vote " is specially employed in the sense for some of the See also:English See also:universities, where votes may be sent of a registering of one's choice in elections or on matters of by See also:post) must necessarily reveal the manner in which the elector debate, and the See also:political meaning is the only one which requires has recorded his vote. It is in connexion with the See also:election comment. of members of representative bodies—especially legislative Ancicnt.—In See also:ancient See also:Greece and See also:Italy the institution of bodies—that the qualifications for and methods of voting See also:suffrage already existed in a rudimentary See also:form at the outset become especially important. Practically every civilized of the See also:historical See also:period. In the See also:primitive monarchies it was See also:country has accepted and put in force some form of representacustomary for the See also:king to invite pronouncements of his folk I tion, which may be defined as the theory and principles on on matters in which it was prudent to secure its assent before- which the obtaining of a vote is founded. These are dealt See also:hand. In these assemblies the See also:people recorded their See also:opinion with in the See also:article See also:REPRESENTATION, and it will be sufficient by clamouring (a method which survived in See also:Sparta as See also:late as to give here the various qualifications which are considered by the 4th See also:century B.C.), or by the clashing of spears on See also:shields. different countries as sufficient to give effect to the principle This latter practice may be inferred to have obtained originally of representation and the methods of recording votes. In in See also:Rome, the word suffragium meaning literally a responsive detail these are given for the See also:United See also:Kingdom and the United See also:crash. Owing to the lack of routine in the See also:early monarchies States in the articles See also:REGISTRATION of Voters and ELECTIONS, and aristocracies of Greece and Italy the vote as yet lacked and for other countries under their respective titles in the importance as ah See also:instrument of See also:government. But in the days sections dealing with the Constitution. of their full political development the communities of these The first See also:consideration is the See also:age at which a person should countries had firmly established the principle of government be qualified for a vote.

This in a large number of countries according to the will of majorities, and their constitutions is fixed at the age of manhood, namely, twenty-one years of age, required almost every important See also:

act to be directed by a formal but in See also:Hungary the age is fixed at twenty years, in See also:Austria vote. This See also:rule applied equally to the decisions of See also:general twenty-four years, while in See also:Belgium, See also:Baden, See also:Bavaria, See also:Hesse, assemblies, administrative See also:councils and See also:law courts, and obtained See also:Prussia, See also:Saxony, See also:Japan, the See also:Netherlands and See also:Norway the age alike in states where suffrage was universal and where it was is twenty-five years, and in See also:Denmark See also:thirty years. Some restricted. countries (e.g. Austria, See also:Germany, See also:France) have adopted the In every case the taking of votes was effected in the form of principle of what is often termed " manhood or universal a See also:poll. The practice of the Athenians, which is shown by suffrage," i.e. every male adult, not a criminal or a lunatic, being See also:inscriptions to have been widely followed in the other states entitled to a vote, but in all cases some further qualifications of Greece, was to hold a show of hands (xetporovi.a), except than See also:mere manhood are required, as in Austria a See also:year's See also:residence on questions affecting the status of individuals: these latter, in the See also:place of election, or in France a six months' residence. which included all lawsuits and proposals of See also:ostracism (q.v.), A See also:common qualification is that the elector should be able to were determined by See also:secret See also:ballot (+'ipfrwper, so called from the read and write. This is required' in Italy and See also:Portugal and >Ooi or pebbles with which the votes were See also:cast). At Rome some of the smaller See also:European states, in some states of the the method which- prevailed up to the and century B.C. was United States (see ELECTIONS) and in many of the See also:South that of See also:division (discessio). But the economic and social depend- See also:American republics. But the most universal qualification of ence of many voters on the See also:nobility caused the See also:system of open all is some outward visible sign of a substantial See also:interest in the suffrage to be vitiated by intimidation and corruption. Hence See also:state. The word " substantial " is used here in a See also:comparative a See also:series of See also:laws enacted between 139 and 107 B.C. prescribed sense, as opposed to that form of suffrage which requires nothing use of the ballot (" tabella," a slip of See also:wood coated with See also:wax) g more for its exercise than attainment of manhood and perhaps for all business done in the assemblies of the people. a certain qualifying period of residence. This tangible sign For the purpose of carrying resolutions a See also:simple See also:majority of of interest in the state may take the form of See also:possession of votes was deemed sufficient.

Regulations about a See also:

quorum See also:property, however small in amount, or the See also:payment of some seem to have been unusual, though a notable exception occurs amount of See also:direct See also:taxation, indeed in some cases, as will be in the case of motions for ostracism at See also:Athens. As a general seen, this is rewarded by the conferring of extra votes. rule equal value was made to attach to each vote; but in the In the United Kingdom possession of See also:freehold or leasehold popular assemblies at Rome a system of voting by See also:groups was property of a certain value or occupation of premises of a certain in force until the See also:middle of the 3rd century B.C. by which the See also:annual value gives a vote. This qualification of property may richer classes secured a decisive preponderance (see See also:COMITIA). be said to be included in what is termed the " lodger " vote, As compared with See also:modern practice the See also:function of voting was given to the occupier of lodgings of the yearly value unfurrestricted in some notable ways. (i) In the democracies of Greece nished of not less than £1o. In Hungary, the payment of a the use of the See also:lot largely supplanted polling for the election of small direct tax on See also:house or See also:land or on an income magistrates: at Athens voting was limited to the choice of See also:officers sproperty with See also:special technical qualifications. (2) In accordance with the varying with occupation is necessary. So in Prussia, Saxony, theory which required residence at the seat of government as a Bavaria, Hesse, Italy (unless a certain See also:standard in elementary See also:condition of See also:franchise, the suffrage could as a rule only be exercised See also:education has been reached), Japan, the Netherlands, Portugal in the See also:capital See also:town. The only known exception under a centralized government was a See also:short-lived experiment under the See also:emperor (unless the elector is able to read and write) and See also:Russia. Some See also:Augustus, who arranged for polling stations to be opened at election- of the states in the United States also require the payment of See also:time in the country towns of Italy. In federal governments the a poll tax. On the other hand, in Russia, students, soldiers, election of deputies to a central legislature seems to be attested See also:governors of provinces and See also:police officers are disqualified from by the practice of the Achaean See also:League, where the federal See also:Council voting; in Portugal, bankrupts, beggars, domestic servants, was probably elected in the several constituent towns.

But little is known as to ancient methods of electing delegates to representa- workmen in government service and non-commissioned officers tive institutions, and in general it may be said that the function are not See also:

electors; it must be noted, however, that the governmen4 of the new Portuguese See also:republic promised in 1910 a drastic revision of the existing franchise. Italy disfranchises non-commissioned officers and men in the See also:army while under arms, as do France and See also:Brazil. The United Kingdom and Denmark disqualify those in actual See also:receipt of See also:parish See also:relief, while in Norway, apparently, receipt of parish relief at any time is a disqualification, which, however, may be removed by the recipient paying back the sums so received. In some countries, e.g. Brazil, the suffrage is refused to members of monastic orders, &c., under vows of obedience. Apart from those countries where a modicum of education is necessary as a test of right to the franchise, there are others where education is specially favoured in granting the franchise. In the United Kingdom the members of eight universities (See also:Oxford, See also:Cambridge, See also:London, See also:Dublin University, See also:Glasgow, See also:Edinburgh, See also:Aberdeen and St See also:Andrews) send nine members to See also:parliament; in Hungary members of the professional, scientific, learned and other classes (over 8o,000) are entitled to vote without any other qualification; in See also:Brunswick the scientific classes elect three members to the legislative chamber; in Saxony, members of scientific or See also:artistic professions have extra votes; in Italy, members of See also:academies and professors are qualified to vote by their position; while in the Netherlands legal qualifications for any profession or employment give a vote. Many objections have been urged of late years to the principle of according a See also:plurality of votes to one individual on See also:account of See also:superior qualifications over others which he may be considered to possess. In the United Kingdom, where, roughly speaking, the principle of representation is that of taxation, the possession of qualifying property in any number of electoral districts will give a vote in each of those districts. Whether those votes can be actually registered will of course depend on certain circumstances, such as the distance of the districts apart and whether the elections are held on the same See also:day or not. The See also:Radical party in the United Kingdom have of late years been hostile to any system of plurality of votes (whether gained by educational, property or other qualifications), though it may be said that the tendency of some See also:recent electoral systems has been to introduce a steadying principle of this nature. In 1906 a See also:bill was introduced for reducing the system of plural voting in the United Kingdom; it passed through the House of See also:Commons, but was rejected by the House of Lords.

The most remarkable system of plural voting was that introduced in Belgium by the electoral law of 1894. Under it, every See also:

citizen over thirty-five years of age with legitimate issue, and paying at least 5 francs a year in house tax, has a supple-See also:mental vote, as has every citizen over twenty-five owning immovable property to the value of 2000 francs, or having a corresponding income from such property, or who for two years has derived at least roo francs a year from Belgian funds either directly or through the savings See also:bank. Two supplementary votes are given to citizens over twenty-five who have received a diploma of higher instruction, or a certificate of higher secondary instruction, or who fill or have filled offices, or engaged in private professional instruction, implying at least See also:average higher instruction. Three votes is the highest number allowed, while failure to vote is punishable as a See also:misdemeanour. In 1908—9 the number of electors in Belgium was 1,651,647, of whom 981,866 had one vote, 378,264 two votes and 291,517 three votes. In some other countries See also:weight is given to special qualifications. In the town of See also:Bremen the government is in the hands of a See also:senate of 16 members and a See also:Convent of Burgesses (Burgerschaft) of 150 members. These latter are elected by .the votes of all the citizens divided into classes. University men return 14 members, merchants 40 members, See also:mechanics and manufacturers 20 members, and the other inhabitants the See also:remainder. So in Brunswick and in See also:Hamburg legislators are returned by voters representing various interests. In Prussia, representatives are chosen by direct electors who in their turn are elected by indirect electors. One direct elector is elected from every See also:complete number of 250 souls.

The indirect electors are divided into three classes,the first class comprising those who pay the highest taxes to the amount of one-third of the whole; the second, of those who pay the next highest amount down to the limits of the second third; the third, of all the lowest taxed. In Italy electors must either have attained a certain standard of elementary education, or pay a certain amount of direct taxation, or if See also:

peasant farmers pay a certain amount of See also:rent, or if occupants of lodgings, shops, &c., in towns, pay an annual rent according to the See also:population of the See also:commune. In Japan, voters must pay either land tax of a certain amount for not less than a year or direct taxes other than land tax for more than two years. In the Netherlands, householders, or those who have paid the rent of houses or lodgings for a certain period, are qualified for the franchise, as are owners or tenants of boats of not less than 24 tons capacity, as well as those who have been for a certain period in employment with an annual wage of not less than X22, 18s. 4d., have a certificate of state interest of not less than roo florins or a savings bank See also:deposit of not less than 50 florins. The method now adopted in most countries of recording votes is that of secret voting or ballot (q.v.). This is carried out sometimes by a See also:machine (see VOTING See also:MACHINES). The method of determining the successful See also:candidate varies greatly in different countries. In the United Kingdom the candidate who obtains a relative majority is elected, i.e. it is necessary only to obtain more votes than any other candidate (see REPRESENTATION).

End of Article: VOTE

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