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UNIVERSITIES .1 The See also:medieval Latin See also:term universitas (from which the See also:English word " university " is derived) was originally employed to denote any community or See also:corporation regarded under its collective aspect. When used in its See also:modern sense, as denoting a See also:body devoted to learning and See also:education, it required the addition of other words in See also:order to See also:complete the See also:definition—the most frequent See also:form of expression being " universitas magistrorum et scholarium " (or " discipulorum "). In the course of See also:time, probably towards the latter See also:part of the 14th See also:century, the term began to be used by itself, with the exclusive meaning of a community of teachers and scholars whose corporate existence had been recognized and sanctioned by See also:civil or ecclesiastical authority or by both. But the more See also:ancient and customary designation of such communities in medieval times (regarded as places of instruction) was " studium " (and subsequently "studium generale "), a term implying a centre of instruction for all.2 The expressions " universitas studii " and " universitatis collegium " are also occasionally to be met with in See also:official documents.
It is necessary, however, to See also:bear in mind, on the one See also:hand, that a university often had a vigorous virtual existence See also:long before it obtained that legal recognition which entitled it, technically, to take See also:rank as a " studium generale," and, on the other hand, that hostels, halls and colleges, together with complete courses in all the recognized branches of learning, were by no means necessarily involved in the earliest conception of a university. The university, in its earliest See also:stage of development, appears to have been simply a scholastic gild—a spontaneous See also:combination, that is to say, of teachers or scholars, or of both combined, and formed probably on the See also:analogy of the trades See also:gilds, and the gilds of aliens in See also:foreign cities, which, in the course of the r3th and 14th centuries, are to be found springing up in most of the See also:great See also:European centres. The See also:design of these organizations, in the first instance, was little more than that of securing mutual See also:protection—for the craftsman, in the pursuit of his See also:special calling; for the See also:alien, as lacking the rights and privileges inherited by the See also:citizen. And so the university, composed as it was to a great extent of students from foreign countries, was a combination formed for the protection of its members from the See also:extortion of the townsmen and the other annoyances incident in medieval times to See also:residence in a foreign See also:state. It was a first stage of development in connexion with these See also:primary organizations, when the See also:chancellor of the See also:cathedral, or some other authority, began, as we shall shortly see, to See also:accord to other masters permission to open other See also:schools than the cathedral school in the neighbourhood of his See also: In the See also:north of Europe such licences were granted by the Chancellor Scholasticus, or some other officer of a cathedral Meaning church; in the See also:south it is probable that the gilds of of masters (when these came to be formed) were at first "studium See also:free to See also: The word Origin of universitas was originally applied only to the scholastic the term gild (or gilds) within the studium, and was at first not "univer- used absolutely; the phrase was always universitas
See also:sky... magistrorum, or scholarium or magistrorum et scholarium. By the See also:close of the medieval See also:period, however, the distinction between the terms studium generate and universitas was more or less lost sight of, and in See also:Germany especially the term universitas began to be used alone.'
In order, however, clearly to understand the conditions under
which the earliest universities came into existence, it is necessary
to take See also:account, not only of their organization, but also
See also:empire, which had down to that time kept alive the traditions of See also:pagan education, had been almost entirely swept away by the barbaric invasions. The latter century marks the period when the institutions which supplied their See also:place—the episcopal schools attached to the cathedrals and the monastic schools—attained to their highest degree of See also:influence and reputation. Between these and the schools of the empire there existed an essential difference, in that the theory of education by which they were pervaded was in complete contrast to the simply See also:secular theory of the schools of paganism. The cathedral school taught only what was supposed to be necessary for the education of the See also:priest; the monastic school taught only what was supposed to be in See also:harmony with the aims of the See also: On the whole, however, a clearly traced, although imperfectly continuous, See also:succession of distinguished teachers has inclined the See also:majority of those who have studied this obscure period to conclude that a certain tradition of learning, handed down from the famous school over which Alcuin presided at the great See also:abbey of St See also: 145. 4 Puccinotti, Storia della Medicina, i. 317-26. See also:History of their studies, and to recognize the main influences of learning which, from the 6th to the 12th century, served to before the modify both the theory and the practice of education. univer- In the former century, the schools of the Roman shy era. Mamoun at See also:Bagdad a considerable collection of Greek See also:manuscripts, which seems to have given the earliest impulse to the study of the Hellenic pagan literature by the See also:Saracens. The original texts were translated into Arabic by Syrian Christians, and these versions were, in turn, rendered into Latin for the use of teachers in the See also:West. Of the existence of such versions we have See also:evidence, according to Jourdain,1 long See also:prior to the time when See also:Constantine the See also:African (d. 1087) began to deliver his lectures on the See also:science at Salerno, although these early versions have since altogether disappeared. Under his teaching the fame of Salerno as a medical school became diffused all over Europe; it was distinguished also by its See also:catholic spirit, and, at a time when See also:Jews were the See also:object of religious persecution throughout Europe, members of this See also:nationality were to be found both as teachers and learners at Salerno. Ordericus Vitalis, who wrote in the first half of the 12th century, speaks of it as then long famous. In 1231 it was constituted by the emperor Frederick II. the only school of medicine in the See also:kingdom of Naples. The great revival of legal studies which took place at Bologna about the See also:year r000 had also been preceded"by a corresponding activity elsewhere—at See also:Pavia by a famous school of Bologna. Lombard See also:law, and at See also:Ravenna by a yet more important school of Roman law. And in Bologna itself we have evidence that the See also:Digest was known and studied before the time of See also:Irnerius (11oo-3o), a certain Pepo being named as lecturing on the text about the year 1076. The traditional See also:story about the " See also:discovery " of the See also:Pandects at See also:Amalfi in 1135 was disproved even before the time of See also:Savigny. Schulte has shown that the publication of the Decretum of See also:Gratian must be placed earlier than the traditional date, i.e. not later than 1142. This instruc- tion again was of a kind which the monastic and cathedral schools could not See also:supply, and it also contributed to meet a new and pressing demand. The neighbouring states of See also:Lombardy were at this time increasing rapidly in See also:population and in See also:wealth; and the greater complexity of their See also:political relations, their growing manufactures and See also:commerce, demanded a more definite application of the principles embodied in the codes that had been handed down by See also:Theodosius and Justinian. But the distinctly secular character of this new study, and its close connexion with the claims and prerogatives of the Western emperor, aroused at first the susceptibilities of the Roman see, and for a time Bologna and its civilians were regarded by the church with distrust and even with alarm. These sentiments were not, however, of long duration. In the year 1151 the See also:appearance of the Decretum of Gratian, largely See also:corn- 1e- piled from See also:spurious documents, invested the studies tum of Gratian of the canonist with fresh importance; and numer- and the ous decrees of past and almost forgotten pontiffs See also:canon now claimed to take their stand See also:side by side with law. the enactments contained in the Corpus See also:Juris See also:Civilis. They constituted, in fact, the main basis of those new pretensions asserted with so much success by the popedom in the course of the 12th and 13th centuries. It was necessary, accordingly, that the Decretum should be known and studied beyond the walls of the monastery or the episcopal palace, and that its pages should receive authoritative exposition at some common centre of instruction. Such a centre was to be found in Bologna. The needs of the secular student and of the ecclesiastical student were thus brought for a time into accord, and from the days of Irnerius down to the close of the 13th century we have satisfactory evidence that Bologna was generally recognized as the See also:chief school both of the civil and the canon law .2 It has, indeed, been asserted that university degrees were instituted there as early as the pontificate of See also:Eugenius III. (1145-53), but the statement rests on no See also:good authority, and is in every way improbable. There is, however, another tradition which is in better harmony with the known facts. When See also:Barbarossa marched his forces into Italy on his memorable expedition of 1155, and reasserted those imperial claims which had so long 1 Sur l'dge et l'origine des traductions Wines, &c., p. 225. s Denifle, Die Universitdten, &c., i. 48.lain dormant, the professors of the civil law and their scholars, but more especially the foreign students, gathered Foreign See also:round the Western representative of the Roman students Caesars, and besought his intervention in their favour at in their relations with the citizens of Bologna. A large Bologna proportion of the students were probably from Germany; and it did not See also:escape Frederick's penetration that the civilian might prove an invaluable ally in the assertion of his imperial pretensions. He received the suppliants graciously, and, finding that their grievances were real, especially against the landlords in whose houses they were domiciled, he granted the foreign students substantial protection, by conferring on them certain special immunities and privileges (See also:November 1158)? These privileges were embodied in the celebrated Authentica, Habita, in the Corpus Juris Civilis of the empire (bk. iv. tit. 13), and were eventually extended so as to include all the other universities of Italy. In them we may discern the precedent for that state protection of the university which, however essential at one time for the See also:security and freedom of the teacher and the taught, has been far from proving an unmixed benefit—the influence which the civil See also:power has thus been able to exert being too often wielded for the suppression of that very See also:liberty of thought and inquiry from which the earlier universities derived in no small measure their importance and their fame. But, though there was a flourishing school of study, it is to be observed that Bologna did not possess a university so early as 1158. Its first university was not constituted until The «unlthe close of the 12th century. The " universities " at versifies" Bologna were, as Denifle has shown, really student gilds, at formed under influences quite distinct from the See also:pro- Bologna. tecting clauses of the Authentica, and suggested, as already noted, by the precedent of those foreign gilds which, in the course of the z 2th century, began to rise throughout western Europe. These were originally only two in number, the Ultramontani and the Citramontani, and arose out of the See also:absolute See also:necessity, under which residents in a foreign See also:city found themselves, of obtaining by combination that protection and those rights which they could not claim as citizens. These See also:societies were modelled, Denifle considers, not on the See also:trade gilds which rose in Bologna in the 13th century, but on the See also:Teutonic gilds which arose nearly a century earlier in north-western Europe, being essentially " spontaneous confederations of aliens on a foreign See also:soil." Originally, they did not include the native student See also:element and were composed exclusively of students in law. The power resulting from this principle of combination, when superadded to the privileges conferred by Barbarossa, gave to the students of Bologna a superiority of which they were not slow to avail themselves. Under the leadership of their See also:rector, they extorted from the citizens concessions which raised them from the condition of an oppressed to that of a specially privileged class. The same principle, when put in force against the professors, reduced the latter to a position of humble deference to the very body whom they were called upon to instruct, and imparted to the entire university that essentially democratic character by which it was afterwards distinguished. It is not surprising that such advantages should have led to an See also:imitation and See also:extension of the principle by which they were obtained. Denifle considers that the " universities " at Bologna were at one time certainly more than four in number, and we know that the See also:Italian students alone were subdivided into two—the other Tuscans and the See also:Lombards. In the centres formed by similar See also:secession from the See also:parent body a like subdivision took corn-place. At See also:Vercelli there were four universitates, corn- menities posed respectively of Italians, English, Provencals and in Italy Germans; at See also:Padua there were similar divisions into Italians, a See Savigny, Gesch. d. rom. Rechts, iii. 152, 491-92. See also See also:Giesebrecht, Gesch. d. Kaiserzeit (ed. 1880), v. 51-52. The story is preserved in a recently discovered metrical See also:composition descriptive of the history of Frederick I.; see Sitzungsberichte d. Bairisch. Akad. d. Wissenschaft, Phil.-Hist. Masse (1879), ii. 285. Its authenticity is called in question by Denifle, but it would seem to be quite in harmony with the known facts. Their democratic character. See also:French (i.e. Francigenae, comprising both English and Nor-mans), Provencals (including Spaniards and Catalans). When, accordingly, we learn from Odofred that in the time of the eminent jurist See also:Azo, who lectured at Bologna about 1200, the number of the students there amounted to some ten thousand, of whom the majority were foreigners, it seems reasonable to conclude that the number of these confederations of students (societates scholarium) at Bologna was yet greater. It is certain that they were not formed simultaneously, but, similarly to the free gilds, one after the other—the last in order being that of the Tuscans, which was composed of students from See also:Tuscany, the Campagna and See also:Rome. Nor are we, again, to look upon them as in any way the outcome of those democratic principles which found favour in Bologna, but rather as originating in the traditional See also:home associations of the foreign students, fostered, how-ever, by the See also:peculiar conditions of their university See also:life. As the Tuscan See also:division (the one least in sympathy, in most respects, with Teutonic institutions) was the last formed, so, Denifle conjectures, the See also:German " university " may have introduced the conception which was successively adopted by the other nationalities. In marked resemblance to the gilds, these confederations were presided over by a common See also:head, the " rector schola- rium," an obvious imitation of the " rector societatum " guished from the " rector scholarum " or director of the studies, with whose See also:function the former officer had, at this time, nothing in common. Like the gilds, again, the different nations were represented by their " consiliarii," a deliberative See also:assembly with whom the rector habitually took counsel. While recognizing the essentially democratic character of the constitution of these communities, it is to be remembered Mature that the students, unlike the majority at Paris and later See also:age at the universities, were mostly at this time of mature years. students. As the civil law and the canon law were at first the only branches of study, the class whom they attracted were often men already filling See also:office in some See also:department of the church or state—archdeacons, the heads of schools, canons of cathedrals, and like functionaries forming a considerable element in the aggregate. It has been observed, indeed, that the permission accorded them by Frederick I. of choosing, in all cases of dispute, their own tribunal, thus constituting them, to a great extent, sui juris, seems to presuppose a certain maturity of See also:judgment among those on whom this discretionary power was bestowed. See also:Innocent IV., in according his See also:sanction to the new statutes of the university in 1253, refers to them as See also:drawn up by the " rectores et universitas scholarium Bononiensium." About the year 220o were formed the two faculties of medicine and See also:philosophy (or " the arts " 1) , the former being somewhat the earlier. It was See also:developed, as that of the civil law had been developed, by a succession of able teachers, among whom Thaddeus Alderottus was especially eminent. The See also:faculty of arts, down to the 14th century, scarcely attained to equal See also:eminence. The teaching of See also:theology remained for a long time exclusively in the hands of the See also:Dominicans; and it was not until the year 136o that Innocent VI. recognized Bologna as a " studium generale " in this See also:branch—in other words, as a place of theological education for all students, with the power of conferring degrees of universal validity. In the year 1371 the See also:cardinal See also:legate, Anglicus, compiled, as chief director of ecclesiastical affairs in the city, an account Account of the university, which he presented to See also:Urban V. of the The information it supplies is, however, defective, univen- owing to the fact that only the professors who were in shy by See also:receipt of salaries from the See also:municipality are mentioned. Anglkus.and notarial practice. The professors of theology, who, as members of the religious orders, received no state remuneration, are unmentioned. The significance of the term " See also:college," as first employed at Bologna, differed, like that of " university," from that which it subsequently acquired. The collegia of the doctors no more connoted the See also:idea of a place of residence than did the universitates of the students. There were the College of Doctors of Civil Law, the College of Doctors of Canon Law, the College of Doctors in Medicine and Arts and The
(from 1352) the College of Doctors in Theology. univer-Though the professors were largely dependent upon sloes at the students, they had separate organizations of their Bologna. own; the college alone was concerned in the conferment of degrees. Each faculty was therefore at Bologna entirely independent of every other (except for the See also:union of medicine and arts): the only connecting See also:link between them was the necessity of obtaining their degrees (after 1219) from the same chancellor, the See also:archdeacon of Bologna. The decline in the reputation of the studium from about 1250 was largely due to the successful efforts of the doctors to exclude all but Bolognese citizens from membership of the doctoral colleges (which alone possessed the valuable " right of promotion "), and from the more valuable salaried chairs. They even attempted and partially succeeded in restricting these privileges to members of their own families.
Colleges as places of residence for students existed, however, at Bologna at a very early date, but it is not until the The 14th century that we find them possessing any earliest organization; and the humble domus, as it was termed, colleges. was at first designed solely for necessitous students, not being natives of Bologna. A separate See also:house, with a certain fund for the See also:maintenance of a specified number of scholars, was all that was originally contemplated. Such was the character of that founded by Zoen, See also:bishop of See also:Avignon, in See also:February 1256 (O.S.), the same See also:month and year, it is to be noted, in which the See also:Sorbonne was founded in Paris. It was designed for the maintenance of eight scholars from the See also:province of Avignon, under the supervision of three canons of the church, maintaining themselves in the university. Each See also:scholar was to receive 24 Bolognese lire annually for five years. The college of See also:Brescia was founded in 1326 by See also: The study origin of of See also:logic, which, prior to the 12th century, was founded univer-
exclusively on one or two meagre compends, received sity of about the year moo, on two occasions, a powerful Paris. stimulus—in the first instance, from the memorable controversy between See also:Lanfranc and Berengar; in the second, from the no less famous controversy between See also:Anselm and See also:Roscellinus. A belief sprang up that an intelligent See also:apprehension of spiritual truth depended on a correct use of prescribed methods of argumentation. See also:Dialectic was looked upon as " the science of sciences"; and when, somewhere in the first See also:decade of the 12th century, William of See also:Champeaux
opened in Paris a school for the more advanced study of dialectic as an See also:art, his teaching was attended with marked success. Among his pupils was See also:Abelard, in whose hands the study made a yet more notable advance; so that, by the middle of the century, we find See also: Study of logic. gave place to canons See also:regular from St See also:Victor; and henceforth the school on the former See also:foundation was merely a study of school for the teaching of theology, and was attended theology. only by the members of the house.' The schools out of which the university arose were those attached to the cathedral on the Ile de la Cite, and presided over by the chancellor—a dignitary who must be carefully distinguished from the. later chancellor of the university. For a long time the teachers lived in separate houses on the See also:island, and it was only by degrees that they combined themselves into a society, and that special buildings were constructed for their class-See also:work. But the See also:flame which Abelard's teaching had kindled was not destined to tom- expire. Among his pupils was See also:Peter Lombard, who See also:bard's was bishop of Paris in 1159, and widely known to "See also:Sens posterity as the compiler of the famous See also:volume of the fences." Sentences. The design of this work was to place before the student, in as strictly logical a form as practicable, the views (sententiae) of the fathers and all the great doctors of the church upon the chief and most difficult points in the Christian belief. Conceived with the purpose of allaying and preventing, it really stimulated, controversy. The logicians seized upon it as a great storehouse of indisputable See also:major premises, on which they argued with renewed See also:energy and with endless ingenuity of dialectical refinement; and upon this new compendium of theological See also:doctrine, which became the text-See also:book of the middle ages, the schoolmen, in their successive treatises Super sententias, expended a considerable See also:share of that subtlety and labour which still excite the astonishment of the student of metaphysical literature. It is in these prominent features in the history of these early universities—the development of new methods of instruction Rise of concurrently with the appearance of new material other for their application—that we find the most probable early uni- See also:solution of the question as to how the university, •ersities. as distinguished from the older cathedral or monastic schools, was first formed. In a similar manner, it seems probable, the majority of the earlier universities of Italy—Reggio, See also:Modena, See also:Vicenza, Padua and Vercelli—arose, for they had their origin independently alike of the civil and the papal authority. Instances, it is true, occur, which cannot be referred to this spontaneous mode of growth. The university of Naples, for example, was founded solely by the fiat of the emperor Frederick II. in the year 1224; and, if we may rely upon the documents cited by Denifle, Innocent IV. about the year 1245 founded in connexion with the See also:curia a "studium generale," 2 which was attached to the papal court, and followed it when removed from Rome, very much as the Palace School of See also: He then gave a formal inaugural lecture, and, after this See also:proof of magisterial capacity, was welcomed into the society of his professional brethren with set speeches, and took his seat in his master's See also:chair. This community of teachers of recognized fitness did not in itself suffice to constitute a university, but some time between the years 115o and 1170, the period when the Sentences me uniof Peter Lombard were given to the world, the uni- verslty versity of Paris came formally into being. Its first forL,ed. written statutes were not, however, compiled until about the year 1208, and it was not until long after that date that it possessed a " rector." Its earliest recognition as. a legal corporation belongs to about the year 1211, when a brief of Innocent III. empowered it to elect a See also:proctor to be its representative at the papal court. By this permission it obtained the right to See also:sue or to be sued in a court of See also:justice as a corporate body. This papal recognition was, however, very far from implying the episcopal recognition, and the earlier history of the new community exhibits it as in continual conflict alike Diffiwith the chancellor, the bishop and the cathedral conies of See also:chapter of Paris, by all of whom it was regarded as a first centre of insubordination and doctrinal licence. Had develop-it not been, indeed, for the papal aid, the university See also:meat. would probably not have survived the contest; but with that powerful assistance it came to be regarded as the great Transalpine centre of orthodox theological teaching. Successive pontiffs, down to the great See also:schism of 1378, made it one of the foremost points of their policy to cultivate friendly and confidential relations with the authorities of the university of Paris, and systematically to discourage the formation of theological faculties at other centres. In 1231 Gregory IX., in the bull Parens Scientiarum, gave full recognition to the right of the several faculties to regulate and modify the constitution of the entire university—a formal sanction which, in Denifle's See also:opinion, rendered the bull in question the Magna Charta of the university. In comparing the relative antiquity of the universities oS Paris and Bologna, it is difficult to give an unqualified decision. The university of masters at the former was probably slightly anterior to the university of students at the latter; but there is good See also:reason for believing that Paris, in reducing its traditional customs to statutory form, largely availed itself of the precedents afforded by the already existing See also:code of the Transalpine centre. The fully developed university was divided into four faculties—three " See also:superior," viz. those of theology, canon law and medicine, and one " inferior," that of arts, which was divided into four " nations." These nations, which included both professors and scholars, were—(1) the French nation, composed, in addition to the native element, of Spaniards, Italians and Greeks; (2) the See also:Picard nation, rePre- The '•nabons." senting the students from the north-See also:east and from the See also:Netherlands; (3) the See also:Norman nation; (4) the English nation, comprising, besides students from the provinces under English rule, those from England, See also:Ireland, See also:Scotland and Germany. The head of each faculty was the See also:dean; the head of each nation was the proctor. The rector, who in the first instance was head of the faculty of arts, by whom he was elected, was eventually head of the whole university. In congregations of the university matters were decided by a majority of faculties; the See also:vote of the faculty of arts was determined by a majority of nations. The chancellor of Notre Dame, whose functions were now limited to the conferment of the licence, stood as such outside the university or gild altogether, though as a doctor of theology he was always a member of that faculty. Only " regents," that is, masters actually engaged in teaching, had any right to be present or to vote in congregations. Neither the entire university nor the separate faculties had thus, it will be seen, originally a common head, and it was not until the middle of the 14th century that the rector became the head of the collective university, by the See also:incorporation under him, first, of the students of the canon law and of medicine (which took place about the end of the 13th century), and, secondly, of the theologians, which took place about half a century later.
In the course of the 16th and 17th centuries this democratic constitution of the middle ages was largely superseded by the growth of a small See also:oligarchy of officials. The tribunal of the university—the rector, deans and proctors—came to occupy a somewhat similar position to the old " Hebdomadal See also:Board " of heads of colleges at Oxford and the Caput at Cambridge. Moreover, the teaching functions of the university, or rather of the faculty of arts, owing chiefly to the See also:absence of any endowment for the regents or teaching graduates, practically passed to the colleges. Almost as much as the English universities, Paris came to be virtually reduced to a federation of colleges, though the colleges were at Paris less independent of university authority, while the smaller colleges sent their members to receive instruction in the larger ones (colleges de plein exercise), which received large See also:numbers of non-foundation members. This state of things lasted till the French Revolution swept away the whole university system of the middle ages. It may be remarked that the famous Sorbonne was really the most celebrated college of Paris—founded by See also:Robert de Sorbonne circa 1257—but as this college and the college of See also:Navarre were the only college See also:foundations which provided for students in theology, the close connexion of the former with the faculty and the use of its See also: In the former Bologna it was entirely professional—designed, that is to say,
con- to prepare the student for a definite and practical
masted. career in after life; in the latter it was sought to provide a general See also:mental training, and to attract the learner to studies which were speculative rather than practical. In the sequel, the less See also:mercenary spirit in which Paris cultivated knowledge added immensely to her influence and reputation, which about the middle of the 14th century may be said to have reached their apogee. It had See also:forty colleges, governed either by secular or religious communities, and numbered among its students representatives of every See also:country in Europe (Jourdain, Excursions historiques, c. xiv.). The university became known as the great school where theology was studied in its most scientific spirit; and the decisions of its great doctors upon those abstruse questions which absorbed so much of the highest intellectual activity of the middle ages were regarded as almost final. The popes themselves, although averse from
Papal theological controversies, deemed it expedient to
cultivate friendly relations with a centre of such See also:im-
policy.
portance for the purpose of securing their influence
in a yet wider See also: Of these the first were those of Reggio nell' See also:Emilia and Modena, both of which are to be found mentioned as schools of civil law before the close of the 12th century. The latter, throughout the 13th century, appears to have been resorted to Reggio by teachers of sufficient eminence to form a flourish- and See also:ing school, composed of students not only from the Modena. city itself, but also from a considerable distance. Both of them would seem to have been formed independently of Bologna, but the university of Vicenza was probably Vicenza. the outcome of a See also:migration of the students from the former city, which took place in the year 1204. During the next fifty years Vicenza attained to considerable prosperity, and appears to have been recognized by Innocent III.; its students were divided into four nations, each with its own rector; and in 1264 it included in its professoriate teachers, not only of the civil law, but also of medicine, grammar and dialectic. The university of Padua was unquestion- padae. ably the See also:direct result of the migration in 1222 of a considerable number of' students from Bologna. Some writers, indeed, have inferred that the " studium " in the latter city was transferred in its entirety, but the continued residence of a certain proportion in Bologna is proved by the fact that two years later we find them appealing to See also:Honorius III. in a dispute with the civic authorities. In the year 1228 the students of Padua were compelled by circumstances to See also:transfer their residence to Vercelli, and the latter city guaranteed them, besides other privileges, the right to See also:rent no less than five See also:hundred lodging-houses at a fixed rental for a period of eight years. At first Padua was a school only of the civil and canon law; and during the oppressive tyranny of Ezzelin (1237–60) the university maintained its existence with some difficulty. But in the latter part of the century it incorporated the faculties of grammar, rhetoric and medicine, and became known as one of the most flourishing schools of Italy, and a great centre of the Dominicans, at that time among the most active promoters of learning. The university of Naples was founded by the emperor Frederick II. in the year 1225, as a school of theology, See also:jurisprudence, the arts and medicine—his design being Naples. that his subjects in the kingdom of Naples should find in the capital adequate instruction in every branch of learning, and " not be compelled in the pursuit of knowledge to have recourse to foreign nations or to beg in other lands." In the year 1231, however, he decreed that the faculty of medicine should cease to exist, and that the study should be pursued nowhere in the kingdom but at Salerno. The university never attained to much eminence, and after the See also:death of Frederick came for a time altogether to an end, but was restored The Sorbonne. in 1258 by King See also:Manfred. In 1266 its faculty of medicine
was reconstituted, and from 1272–74 See also: The new " studium " included faculties of jurisprudence, philosophy, medicine and the arts, and its students were formally taken under the imperial protection, and endowed with privileges identical with those which had been granted to Paris, Bologna, Oxford, See also: An See also:appeal addressed to Leo X. in the year 1513 represents the number of students as so small as to be sometimes exceeded by that of the lecturers (" ut quandoque plures sint qui legant quam qui audiant "). Scarcely any of the universities in Italy in the 14th century attracted a larger concourse than that of See also:Perugia, Perugia. where the study chiefly cultivated was that of the
civil law. The university received its charter as a studium generale from See also:Clement V. in the year 1308, but had already in 1306 been formally recognized by the civic authorities, by whom it was commended to the special care and protection of the See also:podesta. In common with the See also:rest of the Italian universities, it suffered severely from the great See also:plague of 1348–49 but in 1355 it received new privileges from the emperor, and in 1362 its first college, dedicated to Gregory the Great, was founded by the bishop of Perugia. The university of
Treviso, which received its charter from Frederick Treviso. the See also:Fair in 1318, was of little celebrity and but short duration. The circumstances of the rise of the university of Florence. Florence are unknown, but the earliest evidence of
academic instruction belongs to the year 1320. The See also:dispersion of the university of Bologna, in the See also: The university now entered upon that brilliant period in its history which was destined to so See also:summary an extinction. " It is almost touching," says Denifle, " to See also:note how untiringly Florence exerted her-self at this period to attract as teachers to her schools the great masters of the sciences and learning." In the year 1472, however, it was decided that Florence was not a convenient seat for a university, and its students joined the throngs which repaired to the reopened halls of Pisa. A special interest attaches to the rise of the university of Siena, Siena. as that of one which had made good its position prior to becoming recognized either by emperor or pope. Its be-ginning See also:dates from about the year 1241, but its charter was first granted by the emperor Charles IV., at the See also:petition of the citizens, in the year 1357. It was founded as a studium generate in jurisprudence, the arts and medicine. The imperial charter was confirmed by Gregory XII. in 1408, and the various bulls relating to the university which he subsequently issued afford a good illustration of the conditions of academic life in these times. Residence on the part of the students appears to have been sometimes dispensed with. The bishop of Siena was nominated chancellor of the university, just as, says the bull, he had been appointed to that office by the imperial authority. The graduates were to be admitted to the same privileges as those of Bologna or Paris; and a faculty of theology was added to the curriculum of studies. The uni-See also:Ferrara. versity of Ferrara owes its foundation to the house of See also:Este—Alberto, See also:marquess of Este, having obtained from Boniface IX. in 1391 a charter couched in terms precisely similar to those of the charter for Pisa. In the first half of the 15th century the university was adorned by the presence of several distinguished humanists, but its fortunes were singularly chequered, and it would appear for a certain period to have been altogether extinct. It was, however, restored, and be-came in the latter part of the century one of the most celebrated of the universities of Italy. In the year 1474 its circle of studies comprised all the existing faculties, and it numbered no less than fifty-one professors or lecturers. In later times Ferrara has been noted chiefly as a school of medicine. Of the universities modelled on that of Paris, Oxford would appear to have been the earliest, and the manner of its develop-Oxford. ment was probably similar. Certain schools, opened within the precincts of the dissolved nunnery of St Frideswyde and of Oseney abbey, are supposed to have been the nucleus round which the university grew up. In the year 1133 one Robert Pullen, a theologian of considerable eminence (but whether an Englishman or a See also:Breton is uncertain), arrived from Paris and delivered lectures on the See also:Bible. It has been maintained, on the authority of Gervase of See also:Canterbury, that See also:Vacarius, a native of Lombardy, who, in the latter half of the 12th century, incurred the displeasure of King See also:Stephen by lecturing in England on the civil law, delivered lectures at Oxford. H. S. Denifle, however (Die Enlstehung der Universitdten, p. 241), maintains that the naming of Oxford is a gratuitous See also:assumption on the part of Gervase, and that we have, at best, only presumptive evidence of a studium generale there in the 12th century. Of this, Mr Rashdall inclines to find the beginning in a migration of English students from Paris about 1167 or 1168. In the first-mentioned year we are told by John of Salisbury that " France, the mildest and most civil of nations," has " expelled her foreign scholars " (Materials for the History of Thomas See also:Becket, ed. See also:Robertson, vi. pp. 235-36). At about the same time we hear of an See also:edict of See also: In the year 12J7, when the bishop of See also:Lincoln, as diocesan, had trenched too closely on the liberties of the community, the deputies from Oxford, when preferring their appeal to the king at St Albans, could venture to speak of the university as " schola secunda ecclesiae," or second only to Paris. Its numbers about this time were probably some three thousand; but it was essentially a fluctuating body, and when-ever plague or tumult led to a temporary dispersion a serious diminution in its numerical strength generally ensued for some time after. Against such vicissitudes the foundation of colleges proved the most effectual remedy. Of these the threeearliest were University College, founded in 1249 by William of See also:Durham; Balliol College, founded about 1263 by John Balliol, the father of the king of Scotland of the same name; and Merton College, founded in 1264. The last-named is especially notable as associated with a new conception of university education, namely, that of collegiate discipline for the secular See also:clergy, instead of for any one of the religious orders, for whose See also:sole benefit all similar foundations had hitherto been designed. The statutes given to the society by See also:Walter de Merton are not less noteworthy, as characterized not only by breadth of conception, but also by a careful and discriminating See also:attention to detail, which led to their adoption as the model for later colleges, not only at Oxford but at Cambridge. Of the service rendered by these foundations to the university at large we have significant proof in the fact that, although representing only a small numerical minority in the academic community at large, their members soon obtained a considerable preponderance in the See also:administration of affairs. The university of Cambridge, although it rose into existence somewhat later than Oxford, may reasonably be held to have had its origin in the same century. There was probably a certain amount of educational work carried on by the canons of the church of St See also:Giles, which gradually developed into the instruction belonging to a regular studium. In the year 1112 the canons crossed the See also:river and took up their residence in the new priory in Barnwell, and their work of instruction acquired additional importance. In 1209 a body of students migrated thither from Oxford. Then, as early as the year 1224, the See also:Franciscans established them-selves in the See also:town, and, somewhat less than half a century later, were followed by the Dominicans. At both the English universities, as at Paris, the Mendicants and other religious orders were admitted to degrees, a privilege which, until the year 1337, was extended to them at no other university. Their interest in and influence at these three centres was consequently proportionably great. In the years 1231 and 1233 certain royal and papal letters afford satisfactory proof that by that time the university of Cambridge was already an organized body with a chancellor at its head—a dignitary appointed by the bishop of See also:Ely for the See also:express purpose of granting degrees and governing the studium. In 1229 and 1231 the numbers were largely augmented by migrations from Paris and from Oxford. Cambridge, however, in its turn suffered from See also:emigration; while in the year 1261, and again in 1381, the records of the university were wantonly burnt by the townsmen. Throughout the 13th century, indeed, the university was still only a very slightly and imperfectly organized community. Its endowments were of the most slender kind; it had no systematic code for the See also:government of its members; the supervision of the students was very imperfectly provided for. Although both' Oxford and Cambridge were modelled on Paris, their higher faculties never developed the same distinct organization; and while the two proctors at Cambridge originally represented " north " and " south," the " nations " are scarcely to be discerned. An important step in the direction of discipline was, however, made in the year 1276, when an See also:ordinance was passed requiring that every one who claimed to be recognized as a scholar should have a fixed master within fifteen days after his entry into the university. The traditional constitution of the English universities was in its origin an imitation of the Parisian chancellor, modified by the absence of the cathedral chancellor. As Oxford was not in the 12th century a bishop's see, the bishop (in 1214, if not earlier) appointed a chancellor for the express purpose of granting degrees and governing the studium. But he was from the first elected by the masters, and early obtained recognition as the head of the university as well as the representative of the bishop. The procuratores (originally also rectores) remained representatives of the faculty of arts and (there being at Oxford no deans) of the whole university. But the feature which most served to give permanence and cohesion to the entire community was, as at Oxford, the institution of colleges. The earliest of these was Peterhouse, first founded as a separate See also:Cam-See also:bridge. institution by See also:Hugh See also:Balsham, bishop of Ely, in the year 1284, its earliest extant code being that given in 1344 by See also:Simon de Montacute, which was little more than a transcript of that drawn up by Walter de Merton for his scholars at Oxford. In 1323 was founded Michaelhouse, and two years later, in 1326, See also:Edward II. instituted his foundation of " king's scholars," afterwards forming the community of King's Hall. Both these societies in the 16th century were merged in Trinity College. To these succeeded See also:Pembroke Hall (1347) and Gonville Hall (1348). All these colleges, although by no means conceived in a spirit of hostility to either the monastic or the mendicant orders, were expressly designed for the benefit of the secular clergy. The foundation of Trinity Hall (Aula)1 in 1350 by Bishop See also:Bateman, on the other hand, as a school of civil and canon law, was probably designed to further ultramontane interests. That of Corpus Christi (1352), the outcome of the liberality of a gild of Cambridge townsmen, was conceived with the combined object of providing a house of education for the clergy, and at the same time securing the regular performance of masses for the benefit of the souls of departed members of the gild. 'But both Trinity Hall and Corpus Christi College, as well as See also:Clare Hall, founded in 1359, were to a great extent indebted for their origin to the ravages caused among the clergy by the great plague of 1349. In the latter half of the same century, the coming See also:change of feeling is shown by the fact that the chancellor was under the necessity of issuing a See also:decree (1374) in order to protect the house of the See also:Carmelites from molestation on the part of the students. Returning to France, or rather to the territory included
within the boundaries of modern France, we find Montpellier
a recognized school of medical science as early as
the 12th century. William VIII., See also:lord of Montpellier,
in the year 1181 proclaimed it a school of free resort,
where any teacher of medical science, from whatever country,
might give instruction. Before the end of the century it pos-
sessed also a faculty of jurisprudence, a branch of learning for
which it afterwards became famed. The university of medicine
and that of law continued, however, to be totally distinct bodies
with different constitutions. See also:Petrarch was sent by his father
to Montpellier to study the civil law. On 26th October 1289
Montpellier was raised by See also:Nicholas IV. to the rank of a " studium
generale," a See also:mark of favour which, in a region where papal
influence was so potent, resulted in a considerable accession
of prosperity. The university also now included a faculty of
arts; and there is satisfactory evidence of the existence of a
faculty of theology before the close of the 14th century, although
not formally recognized by the pope before the year 1421. In
the course of the same century several colleges for poor students
were also founded. The university of Toulouse is to be
Toulouse. noted as the first founded in any country by virtue
of a papal charter. It took its rise in the efforts of Rome for the suppression of the Albigensian heresy, and its foundation formed one of the articles of the conditions of See also:peace imposed by See also: As a school of arts, jurisprudence and medicine, although faculties of each existed, it never attained to any reputation. The university of Orleans had a virtual existence orleaas. as a studium generale as early as the first half of the 13th century, but in the year 1305 Clement V. endowed it with new privileges, and gave its teachers permission to form themselves into a corporation. The schools of the city had an existence long prior—as early, it is said, as the 6th century—and subsequently supplied the nucleus for the foundation of a university at See also:Blois; but of this university no records are extant .2 Aula denoting the See also:building which the " college " of scholars was to inhabit; the society continued to retain this designation in order to distinguish it from Trinity College, founded in 1546. ' See Ch. Desmaze, L' Universitk de Paris (1200-1875).Orleans, in its organization, was modelled mainly on Paris, but its studies were complementary rather than in rivalry to the older university. The absorbing character of the study of the civil law, and the mercenary spirit in which it was pursued, had led the authorities at Paris to refuse to recognize it as a faculty. The study found a home at Orleans, where it was cultivated with an energy which attracted numerous students. In January 1235 we find the bishop of Orleans soliciting the See also:advice of Gregory IX. as to the expediency of countenancing a study which was prohibited in Paris. Gregory decided that the lectures might be continued; but he ordered that no beneficed ecclesiastic should be allowed to devote himself to so eminently secular a branch of learning., Orleans subsequently incorporated a faculty of arts, but its reputation from this period was always that of a school of legal studies, and in the 14th century its reputation in this respect was surpassed by no other university in Europe. Prior to the x3th century it had been famed for its classical learning; and See also:Angers, which received its charter at the same time, also once enjoyed a• like reputation, which, in a similar manner, it exchanged Angers. for that of a school for civilians and canonists. The See also:roll of the university forwarded in 1378 to Clement VII. contains the names of 8 professors utriusque juris, 2 of civil and 2 of canon law, 72 licentiates, 284 bachelors of both the legal, faculties, and 190 scholars. The university of Avignon was first recognized as a " studium generale " by Boniface VIII. Avignon. in the year 1303, with power to grant degrees in jurisprudence, arts and medicine. Its numbers declined somewhat during the residence of the popes, owing to the counter-attractions of the "studium " attached to the Curia; but after the return of the papal court to Rome it became one of the most frequented universities in France, and possessed at one time no less than seven colleges. The university of See also:Cahors enjoyed the See also:advantage of being regarded with especial favour by catrors. John XXII. In See also:June 1332 he conferred upon it privileges identical with those already granted to the university of Toulouse. In the following October, again following the precedent established at Toulouse, he appointed the scholasticus of the cathedral chancellor of the university. In November of the same year a bull, couched in terms almost identical with those of the Magna Charta of Paris, assimilated the constitution of Cahors to that of the oldest university. The two schools in France which, down to the close of the 14th century, most closely resembled Paris were Orleans and Cahors. The civil immunities and privileges of the latter university were not, however, acquired until the year 1367, when Edward III. of England, in his capacity as duke of See also:Aquitaine, not only exempted the scholars from the See also:payment of all taxes and imposts, but bestowed upon them the peculiar privilege known as privilegi m fore. Cahors also received a licence for faculties of theology and medicine, but, like Orleans, it was chiefly known as a school of jurisprudence. It was as a " studium generale " in the same three faculties that See also:Grenoble, in the year 1339, Grenoble. received its charter from Benedict XII. The university never attained to much importance, and its See also:annals are for the most part involved in obscurity. At the commencement of the 16th century it had ceased altogether to exist, was reorganized by See also:Francis of See also:Bourbon in 1542, and in 1565 was See also:united to the university of See also:Valence. The university of See also:Perpignan, perP18-founded, according to Denifle, in 1379 by Clement VII. nan,
(although tradition had previously ascribed its origin See also:Orange. to Pedro IV. of See also:Aragon), and that of Orange, founded
in 1365 by, Charles IV., were universities only by name and constitution, their names rarely appearing in contemporary See also:chronicles, while their very existence becomes at times a See also:matter for reasonable doubt.
To some of the earlier Spanish universities—such as See also:Palencia, founded about the year 1214 by See also:Alphonso VIII.; See also:Huesca, founded in 1354 by Pedro IV.; and See also:Lerida, founded palenda, in 1300 by See also: But the main stress of its activity, as was the See also:case with all the earlier Spanish universities until the beginning of the 15th century, was laid on the civil and the canon law. The See also:provision for the payment of its professors was, however, at first so inadequate and precarious that in 1298 they by common consent suspended their lectures, in consequence of their scanty remuneration. A permanent remedy for this difficulty was thereupon provided, by the See also:appropriation of a certain portion of the ecclesiastical revenues of the See also:diocese for the purpose of augmenting the professors' salaries, and the efforts of Martin V. established a school of theology which was afterwards regarded almost as an See also:oracle by Catholic' Europe. About the year 160o the students are shown by the matriculation books to have numbered over 5000. According to Cervantes they were noted for their lawlessness. The earliest of the numerous colleges founded at Salamanca was that of St See also:Bartholomew, long noted for its ancient library and valuable collection of manuscripts, which now form part of the royal library in Madrid. The one university possessed by See also:Portugal had its seat in medieval times alternately in See also:Lisbon and in See also:Coimbra, until, in the year 1537, it was permanently attached to the latter city. Its formal foundation took place in 1309, when it received from King Diniz a charter, the provisions of which were mainly taken from those of the charter given to Salamanca. In 1772 the university was entirely reconstituted. Of the universities included in the present See also:Austrian empire, See also:Prague, which existed as a " studium " in the 13th century, was Prague. the earliest. It was at first frequented mainly by students from See also:Styria and See also:Austria, countries at that time ruled by the emperor Charles IV., who was also' king of Bohemia, and at whose See also:request Pope Clement VI., on the 26th of January 1347, promulgated a bull authorizing the foundation of a " studium generale " in all the faculties. In the following year Charles himself issued a charter for the foundation. This document, which, if original in character, would have been of much interest, has but few distinctive features of its own, its provisions being throughout adapted from those contained in the charters given by Frederick II. for the university of Naples and by See also:Conrad for Salerno—almost the only important feature of difference being that Charles bestows on the students of Prague all the civilprivileges and immunities which were enjoyed by the teachers of Paris and Bologna. Charles had himself been a student in Paris, and the organization of his new foundation was modelled on that university, a like division into four " nations " (although with different names) constituting one of the most marked features of imitation. The numerous students—and none of the medieval universities attracted in their earlier history a larger concourse—were drawn frdm a gradually widening See also:area, which at length included, not only all parts of Germany, but also England, France, Lombardy, See also:Hungary and See also:Poland. Contemporary writers, with the exaggeration characteristic of medieval credulity, even speak of See also:thirty thousand students as present in the university at one time—a statement for which Denifle pro-poses to substitute two thousand as a more probable estimate. It is certain, however, that Prague, prior to the foundation of See also:Leipzig, was one of the most frequented centres of learning in Europe, and Paris suffered a considerable diminution in her numbers owing to the counter-attractions of the great studium of Slavonia. The university of See also:Cracow in Poland was founded in May 1364, by virtue of a charter given by King Casimir the Great, who bestowed on it the same privileges as those possessed by the universities of Bologna and Padua. In the Cracow. following See also:September Urban V., in See also:consideration of the remoteness of the city from other centres of education, constituted it a " studium generale " in all the faculties save that of theology. It is, however, doubtful whether these designs were carried into actual realization, for it is certain that, for a long time after the death of Casimir, there was no university whatever. Its real commencement must accordingly be considered to belong to the year 1400, when it was reconstituted, and the papal sanction was given for the incorporation of a faculty of theology. From this time its growth and prosperity were continuous; and with the year 1416 it had so far acquired a European reputation as to venture upon forwarding an expression of its views in connexion with the deliberations of the council of Constance. Towards the close of the 15th century the university is said to have been in high repute as a school of both astronomical and humanistic studies. The Avignonese popes appear to have regarded the See also:establishment of new faculties of theology with especial See also:jealousy; and when, in 1364, Duke See also:Rudolph IV. founded the university of See also:Vienna, with the design of constituting it a " studium Vienna, generale " in all the faculties, Urban V. refused his asssent to the foundation of a theological school. Owing to the sudden death of Duke Rudolph, the university languished for the next twenty years, but after the accession of Duke See also:Albert III., who may be regarded as its real founder, it acquired additional privileges, and its prosperity became marked and continuous. Like Prague, Vienna was for a long time distinguished by the comparatively little attention bestowed by its teachers on the study of the civil law. No country in the 14th century was looked upon with greater disfavour at Rome than Hungary. It was stigmatized as the See also:land of heresy and schism. When, accordingly, in 1367 King Louis applied to Urban V. for his sanction of the scheme of See also:founding a university at Fiinfkirchen, Urban would not Fiint- consent to the foundation of a faculty of theology, kirchen. although theological learning was in special need of encouragement in those regions; the pontiff even made it a condition of his sanction for a studium generale that King Louis should first undertake to provide for the payment of the professors. We hear but little concerning the university after its foundation, and it is doubtful whether it survived for any length of time the close of the century. " The extreme east of civilized See also:continental Europe in medieval times," observes Denifle, " can be compared, so far as university education is concerned, only with the extreme west and the extreme south. In Hungary, as in Portugal and in Naples, there was See also:constant fluctuation, but the west and the south, although troubled by yet greater commotions than Hungary, See also:bore better See also:fruit. Among all the countries possessed of universities in medieval Valladolid. Coimbra. times, Hungary occupies the lowest place—a state of affairs of which, however, the proximity of the Turk must be looked upon as a main cause." . The university of See also:Heidelberg (the oldest of those of the German See also:realm) received its charter (October 23, 1385) from See also:Heide!. Urban VI. as a "studium generale " in all the re- See also:berg cognized faculties save that of the civil law—the form and substance of the document being almost identical with those of the charter granted to Vienna. It was granted at the request of the elector See also:palatine, See also:Rupert I., who conferred on the teachers and students, at the same time, the same civil privileges as those which belonged to the university of Paris. In this case the functionary invested with the power of bestowing degrees was non-See also:resident, the licences being conferred by the See also:provost of the cathedral at See also:Worms. But the real founder, as he was also the organizer and teacher, of the university was Marsilius of Inghen, to whose ability and energy Heidelberg was indebted for no little of its early reputation and success. The omission of the civil law from the studies licensed in the original charter would seem to show that the pontiff's compliance with the elector's request was merely formal, and Heidelberg, like See also:Cologne, included the civil law among its faculties almost from its first creation. No medieval university achieved a more rapid and permanent success. Regarded with favour alike by the civil and ecclesiastical potentates, its early annals were singularly free from crises like those which characterize the history of many of the medieval universities. The number of those admitted to degrees from the commencement of the first session (19th October 1386 to 16th See also:December 1387) amounted to 5791 Owing to the labours of the Dominicans, Cologne had gained a reputation as a seat of learning long before the founding of Cologne. its university; and it was through the advocacy of some leading members of the Mendicant orders that, at the See also:desire of the city council, its charter as a " studium generale " (21st May 1388) was obtained from Urban VI. It was organized on the model of the university of Paris, as a school of theology and canon law, and " any other recognized faculty "—the civil law being incorporated as a faculty soon after the promulgation of the charter. In common with the other early ' universities of Germany—Prague, Vienna and Heidelberg—Cologne owed nothing to imperial patronage, while it would appear to have been, from the first, the object of special favour with Rome. This circumstance °serves to account for its distinctly ultramontane sympathies in medieval times and even far into the 16th century. In a See also:report transmitted to Gregory XIIL in 1577, the university expressly derives both its first origin and its privileges from the See also:Holy See, and professes to owe no See also:allegiance save to the Roman pontiff. erfure. See also:Erfurt, no less noted as a centre of Franciscan than was Cologne of Dominican influence, received its charter (16th September 1379) from the See also:anti-pope Clement VII. as a " studium generale " in all the faculties. Ten years later (4th May 1389) it was founded afresh by Urban VI., without any recognition of the See also:act of his pretended predecessor. In the 15th century the number of its students was larger than that at any other German university—a fact attributable partly to the reputation it had acquired as a school of jurisprudence, and partly to the ardour with which the nominalist and realist controversies of the time were debated in its midst; its readiness in according a See also:hearing to novel theories causing it to be known as novorum omnium See also:portus. The collegiate system is to be noted as a feature common to all these early German universities; and, in nearly all, the professors were partly remunerated by the appropriation of certain prebends, appertaining to some neighbouring church, to their maintenance. During the first half of the 15th century the relations of the Roman pontiffs to the universities continued much the se me, although the independent attitude assumed by the deputies 1 The See also:statistics of Hautz (Gesch. d. Univ. Heidelberg, L177—178) are corrected by Denifle (Die Entstehung der Universitdten, p. 385).of those bodies at the great See also:councils of Constance and See also:Basel, and especially by those from Paris, could not fail to give rise to apprehensions. The papal bulls for each new founda- Relations tion begin to indicate a certain jealousy with respect to of the the appropriation of prebends by the founders. Where popes to such appropriations are recognized, and more particu- the untlarly in France, a formal sanction of the transfer gener- ally finds a place in the bull authorizing the foundation; but sometimes the founder or founders are themselves enjoined to provide the endowments requisite for the establishment and support of the university. In this manner the See also:control of ,the pontiff over each newly created seat of learning assumed a more real character, from the fact that his assent was accompanied by conditions which rendered it no longer a See also:mere formality. The imperial intervention, on the other hand, was rarely invoked in Germany—Greifswald, See also:Freiburg and See also:Tubingen being the only instances in which the emperor's See also:confirmation of the foundation was solicited? The inadequacy of the traditional studies to meet the growing wants of See also:civilization, and the consequent lack of sympathy on the part of each civic population in which a new studium was founded, now become frequently apparent. Of such conditions the fortunes of the studium at See also:Wurzburg in See also:Bavaria—founded in 1402 by a bishop, with a charter WLr`-See also:burg. bestowed by Boniface IX.—illustrate the dangers. The students belonged chiefly to the faculties of law and theology, and the frequency of their conflicts with the citizens made it necessary before ten years had elapsed to close the university, which was not reopened until 1582. Under the patronage of the See also:prince Bishop See also:Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn, however, it soon became largely frequented by Catholic students. At the present time, under the patronage of the house of See also:Wittelsbach, it is widely famed as a school of medicine. In See also:Turin the university founded in 1412 ,by the See also:counts of See also:Savoy had to be refounded in 1431. The efforts of See also:Parma in the 14th century to raise itself by papal aid to the dignity of a university proved altogether abortive, and it was not until 1422 that, under the protection of the See also:dukes of Milan, its object was attained. In See also:Sicily, See also:Catania, the earliest of its high schools, was created a university by Alphonso CR~°fa' of Aragon in 1445. Five years later See also:Barcelona Barce- received from Pope Nicholas V. the same privileges as tons. Toulouse had obtained from Gregory IX. Among the Spanish universities, however, none has had a more chequered history, although now taking rank with foremost. In Hungary, Mathias See also:Corvinus obtained from See also:Paul II. in 1465 permission to found a general studium where he thought best within his realms—a See also:latitude of choice conceded probably in consequence of the dangers which menaced the kingdom alike from Bohemia and from the See also:Turks; while the See also:Budapest. fact that the university at Ofen (Hungarian Buda) was not actually founded until some ten years later, may have been owing to the resolute stand made by the youthful monarch against the claims to nominate bishops put forward not only by Pope Paul but by his successor See also:Sixtus IV. (1471-84). After a series of eventful experiences, the university of Budapest remains, at the present time, almost exclusively Magyar. It has a school of law at See also:Pressburg, which is all that remains of the university there founded by Mathias Corvinus in 1465.
In See also:northern Germany and in the Netherlands, on the other hand, the growing wealth and prosperity of the different states especially favoured the formation of new centres of Foundalearning. In the flourishing duchy of See also:Brabant the tion of university of See also:Louvain (1426) was to a great extent Louvain. controlled by the municipality; and their patronage, although ultimately attended with detrimental results, long enabled Louvain to outbid all the other universities of Europe in the munificence with which she rewarded her professors. In the course of the next century the " Belgian See also:Athens," as she is styled by See also:Lipsius, ranked second only to Paris in numbers and reputation. In its numerous separate foundations and general
2 Meiners, Gesch. d. hohen Schulen, i. 370.
organization—it possessed no less than twenty-eight colleges —it closely resembled the English universities; while its active See also:press afforded facilities to the author and the controversialist of which both Cambridge and Oxford were at that time almost destitute. It embraced all the faculties, and no degrees in Europe stood so high as guarantees of general acquirements. See also:Erasmus records it as a common saying, that " no one could See also:graduate at Louvain without knowledge, See also:manners and age." See also:Sir William See also: Those connected with the rise
of the university of Leipzig are especially noteworthy, it having been the result of the migration of almost the entire German element from the university of Prague. This element comprised (1) Bavarians, (2) See also:Saxons, (3) Poles (this last-named division being drawn from a wide area, which included See also:Meissen, See also:Lusatia, See also:Silesia and See also:Prussia), and, being represented by three votes in the assemblies of the university, while the Bohemians possessed but one, had acquired a preponderance in the direction of affairs which the latter could no longer submit to. Religious differences, again, evoked mainly by the See also:preaching of John See also:Huss, further intensified the existing disagreements; and eventually, in the year 1409, King See also:Wenceslaus, at the See also:prayer of his Bohemian subjects, issued a decree which exactly reversed the previous' See also:distribution of votes,—three votes being assigned to the Bohemian nation and only one to all the rest. The Germans took deep umbrage, and seceded to Leipzig, where, a bull having been obtained from See also: Greifswald thus became exposed to the full brunt of the struggle which had ensued when the endeavour to nationalize the German church was terminated by the See also:Concordat of Vienna (1448). Of its original statutes only those of the arts faculty are extant. The universities of Freiburg in See also:Baden and Tubingen in See also:Wurttemberg, on the other hand, reflect the sympathies of Freiburg. the Catholic party under the Austrian rule. They alike owed their foundation to the countess See also:Matilda, by whose persuasion her See also:husband, the See also:archduke of Austria, ' See also:Dissertations and Discussions, Append. iii. known as Albrecht VI., was induced to found Freiburg in 1455, and Count See also:Eberhard (her son by a former See also:marriage) to found Tubingen in 1477. The first session at Freiburg opened auspiciously in 1460 under the supervision of its rector, See also:Matthew See also:Hummel of See also:Villingen, an accomplished and learned See also:man, and its numbers were soon largely augmented by migrations of students from Vienna and from Heidelberg, while its resources, which originally were chiefly an See also:annual grant from the city council, were increased by the bestowal of canonries and prebends in the neighbouring parishes. Erasmus had made Freiburg his residence from 1529 to 1535, during which time he may have originated a tradition of liberal learning, but in 1620, under the rule of the archduke See also:Maximilian, the control of the Humanistic studies and of the entire faculty of philosophy was handed over to the See also:Jesuits, who also gained See also:possession of two of the chairs of theology. Although See also:Strassburg since 1872 has been able to offer considerable counter-attractions, Freiburg has held her own, and numbers over 160o students. The university of Tubingen was founded in 1477 with four faculties —those of theology, law, medicine and the arts—and numbered scholars such as John See also:Reuchlin and See also:Melanchthon Tubingen. among its teachers; while in the last century it was famous both for its school of medicine and that of theology (see TUBINGEN). Its general condition in the year 1541-1542, and the See also:sources whence its revenues were derived, have been illustrated by See also:Hoffmann in a short See also:paper which shows the fluctuating nature of the resources of a university in the 16th century—liable to be affected as they were both by the seasons and the markets.2 The earliest 15th-century university in France was that of See also:Aix in See also:Provence. It had originally been nothing more than a school of theology and law, but in 1409 it was re-organized under the direction of the local count as a re- Aix studium generale on the model of Paris. The See also:sphere of its activity is indicated by the fact that the students were divided into Burgundians, Provencals and Catalans. The next foundation, that of See also:Poitiers, had a wider signi- poHiers. ficance as illustrating the struggle that was going on between the French See also:crown and the Roman see. It was instituted by Charles VII. in 1431, almost immediately after his accession, with the special design of creating a centre of learning less favourable to English interests than Paris had at that time shown herself to be. Eugenius IV. could not refuse his sanction to the scheme, but he endeavoured partially to defeat Charles's design by conferring on the new " studium generale simply the same privileges as those possessed by Toulouse, and thus placing it at a disadvantage in comparison with Paris. Charles rejoined by an extraordinary exercise of his own See also:prerogative, conferring on Poitiers all the privileges collectively possessed by Paris, Toulouse, Montpellier, Angers and Orleans, and at the same time placing the university under special royal protection. The foundation of the university of See also:Caen, in the diocese of See also:Bayeux, was attended by conditions almost exactly the See also:reverse of those which belonged to the foundation of that at Poitiers. It was founded under Caen. English auspices during the short period of the supremacy of the English arms in See also:Normandy in the 15th century. Its charter (May 1437) was given by Eugenius IV., and the bishop of Bayeux was appointed its chancellor. The university of Paris had by this time completely forfeited the favour of Eugenius by its attitude at the council of Basel, and Eugenius inserted in the charter for Caen a clause of an entirely novel character, requiring all those admitted to degrees to take an See also:oath of fidelity to the see of Rome, and to bind themselves to See also:attempt nothing prejudicial to her interests. To this proviso the famous Pragmatic Sanction of See also:Bourges was Charles's rejoinder in the following year. On the 18th of May 1442 we find King Henry VI. See also:writing to Eugenius, and dwelling with See also:satisfaction on the rapid progress of the new university, to which, he says, students had flocked from all quarters, and were still daily 2 Okonomischer Zustand der Universitat Tubingen gegen die Mille des r6ten Jahrhunderts (1845). Creiiswaid. arriving.' Ten years later, when the English had been expelled, its charter was given afresh by Charles in terms which left the original charter unrecognized; both teachers and learners were subject to the civil authorities of the city, and all privileges made previously conferred in cases of legal disputes were abolished. From this time the university of Caen was distinguished by its loyal spirit and See also:firm resistance to ultramontane pretensions; and, although swept away at the French Revolution, it was afterwards restored, owing to the sense of the services it had See also:Bordeaux, thus once rendered to the See also:national cause.2 No especi-Valence, ally notable circumstances characterize the foundation See also:Nantes. of the university of Bordeaux (1441) or that of Valence (1452), but that of Nantes, which received its charter from See also:Pius II. in 1463, is distinguished by the fact that it did not receive the ratification of the king of France, and the conditions under which its earlier traditions were formed thus closely resemble those of Poitiers. It seems also to have been regarded with particular favour by Pius II., a pontiff who was at once a ripe scholar and a writer upon education. He gave to Nantes a notable body of privileges, which not only represent an embodiment of all the various privileges granted to universities prior to that date, but afterwards became, with their copious and somewhat tautological phraseology, the accepted model for the great majority of university charters, whether issued by the pope or by the emperor, or by the civil authority. The bishop of Nantes was appointed head of the university, and was charged with the special protection of its privileges Bourges, against all interference from whatever See also:quarter .3 The bull for the foundation of the university of Bourges was given in 1465 by Paul II. at the request of Louis XI. and his See also:brother. It confers on the community the same privileges as those enjoyed by the other universities of France. The royal sanction was given at the petition of the citizens; but, from reasons which do not appear, they deemed it necessary further to petition that their charter might also be registered and enrolled by the See also:parlement of Paris. Founded about the same time, and probably in a spirit of direct rivalry to Freiburg, the university of Basel was opened Basel. in 146o under the auspices of its own citizens. The cathedral school in that ancient city, together with others attached to the monasteries, afforded a sufficient nucleus for a studium, and Pius II., who, as See also:Aeneas Sylvius, had been a resident in the city, was easily prevailed upon to grant the charter (November 12, 1459). During the first seventy years of its existence the university prospered, and its chairs were held by eminent professors, among them historical scholars, such as See also:Sebastian See also:Brant and See also:Jacob Wimpheling. But with the Reformation, Basel became the See also:arena of contests which menaced the very existence of the university itself, the professors being, for the most part, opposed to the new movement with which the burghers warmly sympathized. Eventually, the statutes were revised, and in the latter half of the 16th century the university may be said to have attained its apogee. Before he had signed the bull for the foundation of the university of Basel, Pope Pius, at the request of Duke William of Bavaria, had issued another bull for the foundation of a university at Ingol- stadt (7th April 1459). But it was not until 1472 See also:Ingot- stadt. that the work of teaching was actually commenced stadt there. Some long-existing prebends, founded by former dukes of Bavaria, were appropriated to the endowment, and the chairs in the different faculties were distributed as follows: theology 2, jurisprudence 3, medicine 1, arts 6 —arts in conjunction with theology thus obtaining the preponderance. As at Caen, twenty-two years before, an oath of fidelity to the Roman pontiff was imposed on every student admitted to a degree.' That this proviso was not subsequently 1 Bekynton's See also:Correspondence, i. 123. ' De la See also:Rue, Essais hist. sur la Dille de Caen, ii. 137-140. ' Meiners i. 368. See also:Paulsen, in speaking of this proviso as one " die weder vorher noch nachher sonst vorkommt,' would consequently seem to be not quite accurate. See Die Grandung der deutschen Universitaten, p. 277.abolished, as at Caen, is a feature in the history of the university of See also:Ingolstadt which was attended by important results. No-where did the Reformation meet with more stubborn resistance, and it was at Ingolstadt that the Counter-Reformation was commenced. In 1556 the Jesuits made their first See also:settlement in the university. The next two universities took their rise in the archiepiscopal seats of Treves and See also:Mainz. That at Treves received its charter as early as 1450; but the first academical session did not Treves. commence until 1473. Here the ecclesiastical influences appear to have been unfavourable to the project. The arch-bishop demanded 2000 florins as the See also:price of his sanction. The cathedral chapter threw difficulties in the way of the appropriation of certain livings and canonries to the university endowment; and so obstinate was their resistance that in 1655 they succeeded in altogether rescinding the See also:gift on payment of a very inadequate sum. It was not until 1722 that the assembly of deputies, by a formal grant, relieved the university from the difficulties in which it had become involved. The university of Mainz, on the other hand, was almost entirely indebted to the See also:archbishop Diether for its foundation. It was at his petition that Sixtus IV. granted the charter, 23rd November 1476; and Diether, being himself an enthusiastic humanist, thereupon circulated a See also:letter, couched in elegant Latinity, addressed to students throughout his diocese, inviting them to repair to the new centre, and dilating on the advantages of academic studies and of learning. The rise of these two universities, however, neither of which attained to much distinction, represents little more than the incorporation of certain already existing institutions into a homogeneous whole, the power of conferring degrees being superadded. Nearly contemporaneous with these foundations were those of See also:Upsala (1477) and See also:Copenhagen (1479), which, 'although lying without the political boundaries of Germany, Upsaia reflected her influence. The charter for Copenhagen and was given by Sixtus IV. as early as 1475. The copen- students attracted to this new centre were mainly See also:hagen. from within the See also:radius of the university of Cologne, and its statutes were little more than a transcript of those of the latter foundation. The electorates of See also:Wittenberg and See also:Brandenburg were now the only two considerable German territories which did not possess a "studium generale," and the university founded at Wittenberg by Maximilian I. (6th See also:July 1502) is notable as the first established in Germany by virtue of an imperial as distinguished from a papal decree. Its charter is, however, drawn up with the traditional phraseology of the pontifical bulls, and is evidently not conceived in any spirit of antagonism to Rome. Wittenberg is constituted a " studium generale " in all the four faculties—the right to confer degrees in theology and canon law having been sanctioned by the papal legate some months before, on the 2nd of February 1502. The endowment of the university with church revenues duly received the papal sanction—a bull of Alexander VI. authorizing the appropriation of twelve canonries attached to the See also:castle church, as well as of eleven prebends in outlying districts—ut sic per omnem modum unum corpus ex studio et collegio prcedictis fiat et constituatur. No university in Germany attracted to itself a larger share of the attention of Europe at its commencement. And it was its distinguishing merit that it was the first academic centre north of the Alps where the antiquated methods and barbarous Latinity of the scholastic era were overthrown. prank_ The last university founded in Germany prior to the sort-on-Reformation was that of See also:Frankfort-on-the-See also:Oder. The the-wen design, first conceived by the elector John of Brandenburg, was carried into See also:execution by his son See also:Joachim, at whose request Pope Julius II. issued 'a bull for the foundation, 15th March 1506. An imperial charter, identical in its contents with the papal bull, followed on the 26th of October. The university received an endowment of canonries and livings similar to that of Wittenberg, and some houses in the city were assigned for its use by the elector. Mainz. See also:Witten-berg. The first university in Scotland was that of St See also:Andrews, founded in 1411 by Henry See also:Wardlaw, bishop of that see, and st modelled chiefly on the constitution of the university Andrews. of Paris. It acquired all its three colleges—St - Salvator's, St Leonard's and St See also:Mary's—before the Reformation—the first having been founded in 1456 by Bishop James See also:Kennedy; the second in 1512 by the youthful Arch-bishop Alexander See also:Stuart (natural son of James IV.), and John See also:Hepburn, the prior of the monastery of St Andrews; and the third, also in 1512, by the Beatons, who in the year 1537 procured a bull from Pope Paul III. dedicating the college to the Blessed Virgin Mary of the Assumption, and adding further endowments. The most ancient of the universities of Scotland, with its three colleges, was thus reared in an See also:atmosphere of medieval theology, and undoubtedly designed as a bulwark against heresy and schism. But " by a See also:strange See also:irony of See also:fate," it has been observed, " two of these colleges became, almost from the first, the foremost agents in working the overthrow of that church which they were founded to defend." St Leonard's more especially, like St John's or Queens' at Cam-bridge, became a noted centre of intellectual life and Reformation principles. That he " had drunk at St Leonard's well " became a current expression for implying that a theologian had imbibed the doctrines of Protestantism. The university of See also:Glasgow. Glasgow was founded as a " studium generale " in 1453, and possessed two colleges. Prior to the Reformation it acquired but little celebrity; its discipline was lax, and the number of the students but small, while the instruction was not only inefficient but irregularly given; no funds were provided for the maintenance of regular lectures in the higher faculties; and there was no adequate executive power for the maintenance of discipline. The university of See also:Aberdeen, which was founded in 1494, at first possessed only one college, Aberdeen. namely, King's, which was coextensive with the university and conferred degrees. Marischal College, founded in 1593 by See also:George See also:Keith, fifth See also:Earl Marischal, was constituted by its founder independent of the university in Old Aberdeen, being itself also a college and a university, with the power of conferring degrees. Bishop See also:Elphinstone, the founder both of the university and of King's College (1505), had been educated at Glasgow, and had subsequently both studied and taught at Paris and at Orleans. To the wider experience which he had thus gained we may probably attribute the fact that the constitution of the university of Aberdeen was free from the glaring defects which then characterized that of the university of Glasgow.' But in all the medieval universities of Germany, England and Scotland, modelled as they were on a common type, the absence of adequate discipline was, in a greater or less degree, a common defect. In connexion with this feature we may note the comparatively small percentage of matriculated students proceeding to the degree of B.A. and M.A. when compared with later times. Of this disparity the table on next Degrees See also:column, exhibiting the relative numbers in the unitaken at versity of Leipzig for every ten years from the year Leipzig. 1427 to 1552, probably affords a fair See also:average illustration—the remarkable fluctuations probably depending quite as much upon the See also:comparative healthiness of the period (in respect of freedom from epidemic) and the abundance of the harvests as upon any other cause. The German universities in these times seem to have admitted for the most part their inferiority in learning to older and more favoured centres; and their consciousness of the fact is aspectof shown by the efforts which they made to attract in- aerman structors from Italy, and by the frequent resort of the medieval more ambitious students to schools like Paris, Bologna, waver- Padua and Pavia. That the took their rise in any they S spirit of systematic opposition to the Roman see (as Meiners and others have contended), or that their organization was something See also:external to and independent of the church, is an assertion somewhat qualified by the foregoing evidence. Generally speaking, they were eminently conservative bodies, 1 See also:Fasti 4herdonenses. Pref. p. xvi. 761 Matricu- Percentage of Years. lations. Years. B.A. M.A.
B.A's. -,
M.A's.
1427-1430 737 1429-1432 151 28 20.4 3.8
1437-1440 715 1439-1442 199 50 27.8 6.9
1447-1450 8o8 1449-1452 274 (50) 33.9 ••
1457-1460 1,447 1459-1462 559 81 38.6 5.6
1467-1470 1,137 1469-1472 410 61 36.o 5.4
1477-1480 1,163 1479-1482 458 49 39.4 4.2
1487-1490 1,858 1489-1492 714 62 38.4 3.4
1497-1500 1,288 1499-1502 497 59 38.5 4.6
1507—1510 1,948 1509—1512 510 65 26.1 3.4
1517—1520 1,445 1519-1522 247 35 17.0 2.4
1527-1530 419 1529-1532 77 33 18.4 7.9
1537-1540 686 1539-1542 122 27 17.8 3.9
1547-1550 1,318 1549-1552 200 72 15.2 5.5
14,969 4418 672 29.5 4.5
High reputation of Italian profes-
sors.
and the new learning of the humanists and the new methods of instruction that now began to demand attention were alike for a long period unable to gain admission within academic circles. Reformers such as See also:Hegius, John See also:Wessel and Rudolphus See also: In Italy, almost without exception, it was decided that these controversies were endless and that their effects were pernicious. It was resolved, accordingly, to expel logic, and allow Abandon-its place to be filled by rhetoric. It was by virtue of meat of this decision, which was of a tacit rather than a formal logical character, that the expounders of the new learning in studies the 15th century—men like See also:Emmanuel Chrysoloras, in Italy. See also:Guarino, Leonardo See also:Bruni, See also:Bessarion, Argyropulos and Vallacarried into effect that important revolution in academic studies which constitutes a new era in university learning, and largely helped to pave the way for the Reformation? This discouragement of the controversial spirit, continued as it was in relation to theological questions after the Reformation, obtained for the Italian universities a fortunate See also:immunity from dissensions like those which, as we shall shortly see, distracted the centres of learning in Germany. The professorial body also attained to an almost unrivalled reputation. It was exceptionally select, only those who were in receipt of salaries being permitted, as a rule, to lecture; it was also famed for its ability, the institution of con- current chairs proving an excellent stimulus. These chairs were of two kinds—" See also:ordinary " and " extraordinary "—the former being the more liberally endowed and fewer in number. For each subject of importance there were thus always two and sometimes three rival chairs, and a powerful and continuous emulation was thus maintained among the teachers. " From 2 For an excellent account of this movement, see Georg Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des classischen Alterthums (2nd ed., 2 vols., 188o). the integrity of their patrons, and the lofty See also:standard by which they were judged," says Sir W. Hamilton, " the See also:call to a Paduan or See also:Pisan chair was deemed the highest of all See also:literary honours. The status of professor was in Italy elevated to a dignity which in other countries it has never reached; and not a few of the most illustrious teachers in the Italian seminaries were of the proudest See also:nobility of the land. While the universities of other countries had fallen from Christian and cosmopolite to sectarian and local schools, it is the peculiar See also:glory of the Italian that, under the enlightened liberality of their patrons, they still continued to assert their European universality. Creed and country were in them no See also:bar—the latter not even a reason of preference. Foreigners of every nation are to be found among their professors; and the most learned man in Scotland, Thomas See also:Dempster, sought in a Pisan chair that See also:theatre for his abilities which he could not find at home." 1 To such catholicity of sentiment the Spanish universities during the same period offer a complete contrast, their history being so strongly modified by political and religious movements valenca. that some reference to these becomes indispensable. See also:Valencia, founded in 1501 as a school not only of theology and of civil and canon law, but also of the arts and of medicine, and sanctioned at the petition of its council by Alexander Seville. VI. (see Denifle, i. 645-46), and Seville, sanctioned by Julius II. in 1505, appear both to have been regarded without mistrust at Rome. But although the latter pontiff had approved the foundation of the university of See also:Santiago as early as 1504, the bull for its creation was not granted by Clement VII. until 1526. While, again, the design of establishing a university at See also:Granada had been approved by' Charles V. in the same year, it was not until 1531 that Clement gave his consent, and even then the work of preparation was deferred for another six years. Little indeed is to be learnt respecting the new society until the foundation of the liberally endowed College de Sacro Monte by the archbishop of the province in 1605. These delays are partly to be accounted for by the well-known political jealousies that existed between the monarch and the pontiff; but it is also to be noted that at precisely the same period a movement of no slight importance, whereby it was sought to gain the recognition by the church of the writings and teaching of Erasmus, had been going on in the universities of Spain, and had ultimately died out. It died out at the uncreating See also:voice of the Dominican Melchior See also:Cano, who revived the ancient See also:scholasticism and the teaching of Aquinas. Then followed the Jesuits, whom Cano himself had once denounced as " precursors of See also:Antichrist," and under their direction the scholastic philosophy, together with a certain attention to Greek and See also:Hebrew, became the dominant study. And when the council of See also:Trent had done its work, and doctrinal controversy seemed to have been finally laid to rest, Gregory XIII. in 1574 authorized the See also:Oviedo. foundation of the university of Oviedo; but this was not opened until 1608, and then only with a faculty of law. After this time the universities in Spain shared in the general decline of the country; and even after the See also:expulsion of the Jesuits in 1769 no marked improvement is discernible in their schools. On the contrary, the departure of a body of very able instructors, who, whatever objections might be taken to their doctrinal teaching, were mostly good scholars and men in close See also:touch with the See also:outer world, distinctly favoured that tendency to lifeless routine and unreasoning tradition which characterizes the Spanish universities until the second half of the 19th century. The comparative unimportance of the universities founded during the same period in Italy is partially explained by the Italian number of those which previously existed. In the univer- papal states See also:Macerata and See also:Camerino were founded shies' at a wide See also:interval; the former, according to tradition, Macerata. by a bull of Nicholas IV. as early as the 13th century, cameriao. the latter not until the year 1727 by a bull of Benedict the last century, retaining only a faculty of law, but contributing 1 Hamilton, Discussions, 2nd ed. p. 373. to the maintenance of the medical faculty at Camerino, which was constituted one of the newly created " free universities " (along with See also:Urbino, Ferrara and Perugia) in 1890, but continued to exist only with the aid of contributions levied on the local parishes. Urbino, originally Urbino. opened as a studium under papal patronage in 1671, was also constituted a free university, its chief study being that of law. At Modena there had long existed a faculty of the same study which enjoyed a high repute, but it was Modena. not until 1683 that it received its charter from Duke Francis II. of Este as the university of his capital. Like Camerino, Modena had to rely chiefly on funds collected in the See also:commune, but was able nevertheless to acquire some reputation as a school of law and medicine, declining, when the Jesuits were installed by the Austrian authorities, to revive again in the general recovery which took place among the seats of learning after the unification of Italy. In Sicily, See also:Palermo (1779) originated Skily. in an earlier institution composed mainly of subjects of Ferdinand IV., who had followed him on his ex- Palermo. pulsion from the See also:throne of the Two Sicilies at Naples towards the end of the 18th century. It was closed in 18os, but re-opened in 185o to become a school of considerable importance in all the faculties with over l000 students. The two universities of See also:Sardinia—See also:Sassari (1634 )and Cagliari (1596)— Sasser! were founded under the Spanish rule, and both died out cagna,I when that rule was exchanged for that of Austria. Under the auspices of the house of Savoy they were re-established, but neither can be said to have since achieved any marked success. For the most part, however, the Reformation represents the great boundary See also:line in the history of the medieval universities, and long after See also:Luther and See also:Calvin had passed away was still the main influence in the history of those new foundations which arose in See also:Protestant countries. Even in Catholic countries its secondary effects were scarcely less perceptible, as they found expression in connexion with the Counter-Reformation. In Germany the Thirty Years' See also:War was attended by con-sequences which were See also:felt long after the 17th century. In France the Revolution of 1789 resulted in the actual uprooting of the university system. The influence of the Humanists, and the special character which it assumed as it made its way in Germany in connexion with the labours of scholars like Erasmus, John Reuchlin and Melanchthon, augured well for the future. It was free from the frivolities, the pedantry, the immoralities and the See also:scepticism which characterized so large a proportion of the corresponding culture in Italy. It gave promise of resulting at once in a See also:critical and enlightened study of the masterpieces of classical antiquity, and in a reverent and yet rational See also:interpretation of the Scriptures and the Fathers. The fierce bigotry and the ceaseless controversies evoked by the promulgation of Lutheran or Calvinistic doctrine dispelled, however, this hopeful prospect, and converted what might otherwise have become the tranquil abodes
of the See also:Muses into gloomy fortresses of sectarianism. Of the manner in which it affected the highest culture, the observation of See also:Henke in his Life of Calixius (i. 8), that for a century after the Reformation the history of Lutheran theology becomes almost identified with that of the German universities, may serve as an illustration.
The first Protestant university was that of See also:Marburg, founded by See also: This dictation of the temporal power now becomes one of the most notable features in academic history in Protestant Germany. The universities, having repudiated the papal authority, while that of the episcopal order was at an end, now began to pay especial court to the temporal ruler, and sought in every way to con-ciliate his See also:goodwill, representing with peculiar distinctness the theory—cujus regio, ejus religio. This tendency was further strengthened by the fact that their colleges, bursaries and other similar foundations were no longer derived from or supported by ecclesiastical institutions, but were mainly dependent on the civil power. The Lutheran university of See also:Konigsberg was founded 17th See also:August 1544 by Albert III., See also:margrave of Brandenburg, and the first duke of Prussia, and his wife Dorothea, a Kdnlgs- Danish princess. In this instance, the religious berg character of the foundation not having been determined at the commencement, the papal and the imperial sanction were both applied for, although not accorded. King See also:Sigismund of Poland, however, which kingdom exercised at that time a See also:protectorate over the Prussian duchy, ultimately gave the necessary charter (29th September 1561), at the same time ordaining that all students who graduated as masters in the faculty of philosophy should rank as nobles of the See also:Polish kingdom. When Prussia was raised to the rank of a kingdom (1701) the university was made a royal foundation, and the " collegium Fridericianum," which was then erected, received corresponding privileges. In 1862 the university buildings were rebuilt, and the number of the students soon after rose to nearly a thousand. The Lutheran university of See also:Jena had its origin in a gymnasium founded by John Frederick the Magnanimous, elector of /ena. Saxony, during his imprisonment, for the express purpose of promoting Evangelical doctrines and repairing the loss of Wittenberg, where the Philippists had gained the ascendancy. Its charter, which the emperor Charles V. had refused to grant, and which was obtained with some difficulty from his brother, Ferdinand I., enabled the authorities to open the university on the 2nd of February 1558. Distinguished for its vehement assertion of Lutheran doctrine, its hostility to the teaching of Wittenberg was hardly less pronounced than that with which both centres regard Roman Catholicism. For a long time it was chiefly noted as a school of medicine, and in the 17th and 18th centuries was in See also:bad repute for the lawlessness of its students, among whom duelling prevailed to a scandalous extent. The beauty of its situation and the eminence of its professoriate have, however, generally attracted a considerable proportion of students from other countries. Its numbers in 1906 were 1281. The Lutheran university of See also:Helmstedt, founded by Duke Julius (of the house of See also:Brunswick-Wolfenbifttel), and designated after him in its official records as " Academia Julia," received its charter, 8th May 1575, from the emperor Maximilian II. No university in the 16th century commenced under more favourable auspices. It was munificently endowed by the founder and by his son; and its " Convictorium," or college for poor students, expended in the course of thirty years no less than roo,000 thalers, an extra-ordinary See also:expenditure for an institution of such a character in those days. Beautifully and conveniently situated in what had now become the well-peopled region between the See also:Weser and the See also:lower See also:Elbe, and distinguished by its comparatively temperate maintenance of the Lutheran tenets, it attracted a considerable concourse of students, especially from the upper classes, not a few being of princely rank. Throughout its history, until suppressed in 1809, Helmstedt enjoyed the special and powerful patronage of the dukes of Saxony. The " Gymnasium Aegidianum " of See also:Nuremberg, founded in 1526, and removed in 1575 to See also:Altdorf, represents the origin of the university of Altdorf. A charter was granted A[tdort in 1578 by the emperor Rudolph II., and the university . was formally opened in 1580. It was at first, however, em-powered only to grant degrees in arts; but in 1623 the emperor Ferdinand II. added the permission to create doctors of law and medicine, and also to confer crowns on poets; and in 1697 its faculties were completed by the permission given by the emperor See also:Leopold I. to create doctors of theology. Like Louvain, Altdorf was nominally ruled by the municipality, but in the latter university this power of control remained practically inoperative, and the consequent freedom enjoyed by the community from evils like those which brought about the decline of Louvain is thus described by Hamilton: " The decline of that great and wealthy See also:seminary (Louvain) was mainly determined by its vicious patronage, both as vested in the university and in the town. Altdorf, on the other hand, was about the poorest university in Germany, and long one of the most eminent. Its whole endowment never rose above £Soo a year; and, till the period of its declension, the professors of Altdorf make at least as distinguished a figure in the history of philosophy as those of all the eight universities of the See also:British empire together. On looking closely into its constitution the See also:anomaly is at once solved. The patrician See also:senate of Nuremberg were too intelligent and patriotic to attempt the exercise of such a function. The nomination of professors, though formally ratified by the senate, was virtually made by a board of four curators; and what is worthy of remark, as long as curatorial patronage was a singularity in Germany, Altdorf maintained its relative pre-eminence, losing it only when a similar mean was adopted in the more favoured universities of the empire."' The See also:conversion of Marburg into a school of Calvinistic doctrine gave occasion to the foundation of the universities of See also:Giessen and of Rinteln. Of these the former, Giessen. founded by the margrave of Hesse-See also:Darmstadt, Louis V., as a kind of See also:refuge for the Lutheran professors from Marburg, received its charter from the emperor Rudolph II. (19th May 1607). When, however, the margraves of Darmstadt acquired possession of Marburg in 1625, the university was transferred thither; in 165o it was moved back again to Giessen. The number of matriculated students, which at the beginning of last century was about 250, had risen before its close to over Soo. In common with the other universities, of Germany, but with a facility which obtained for it a specially unenviable reputation, Giessen was for a long time wont to confer the degree of doctor in absentia in the different faculties without requiring adequate See also:credentials. This practice See also:drew forth an emphatic protest from the eminent historian See also:Mommsen, and was abandoned long before his death. The university Rinteln. of Rinteln was founded 17th July 1621 by the emperor Ferdinand II. Almost immediately after its foundation it became the See also:prey of contending parties in the Thirty Years' War, and its early development was thus materially hindered. It never, however, attained to much distinction, and in 1819 it was suppressed. The university of Strassburg was founded in 1621 on the basis of an already existing See also:academy, strass- to which the celebrated John See also:Sturm stood, during the burg. latter part of his life, in the relation of " rector perpetuus " and of which we are told that in 1578 it included more than a thousand scholars, among whom were 200 of the nobility, 24 counts and barons and three princes. It also attracted students from all parts of Europe, and especially from Portugal, Poland, See also:Denmark, France and England. The method of Sturm's teaching became the basis of that of the Jesuits, and through them of the public school instruction in England. In 1621 Ferdinand II. conferred on this academy full privileges as a university; in the language of the charter, " in See also:omnibus facultatibus, doctores, licentiatos, magistros, et baccalaureos, atque insuper poetas laureatos creandi et promovendi."2 In 1681 1 Discussions, &c., 2nd ed., pp. 388-89. z Promulg. Acad. Privil., &c. (Strassburg, 1628). Helmstedt.
764
Strassburg became French, and remained so until 1872, when it was refounded by the Emperor William I., and before the close of the century numbered over rroo students.
At the beginning of last century See also:Russia possessed but three
universities—that of See also:Moscow (1755), founded by
the Empress See also: It was, however, without endowment, and depended chiefly on a grant from the state aided by private liberality. During the ensuing twenty years the general influence of Dorpat rapidly spread far beyond the Baltic provinces, while the number of students, which in 1879 was 1106, rose influence of Dorpat. to nearly 2000.1 In 1889, however, the See also:appointment of the university officials was taken from the Senatus Academicus and entrusted to the state See also:minister, a change which went far to deprive the university of its claim to be considered German. A like contest between contending nationalities met with a final solution at Prague, where a See also:Czech university having been established on an independent basis, the German university began its separate career in the See also:winter session of 1882-83. The German foundation retains certain revenues accruing from special endowments, but the state subvention is divided between the two. The repudiation on the part of the Protestant universities of both papal and episcopal authority evoked a counter-demonstration among those centres which still adhered to Catholicism, while their theological intolerance gave rise to a great reaction, under the influence of which the medieval Catholic univer- 1 See Die deutsche Universit¢t Dor pat im Lichte der Geschichte, 1882.sities were reinvigorated and reorganized (although strictly on the traditional lines), while new and important centres were created. It was on the See also:tide of this reaction, aided by their own skilful teaching and practical sagacity, that the Jesuits were See also:borne to that commanding position which made them for a time the arbiters of education in Europe. The earliest university whose charter represented this reaction was that of See also:Bamberg: Bamberg, founded by the prince-bishop Melchior See also:Otto, after whom it was named " Academia Ottoniana." It was opened 1st September 1648, and received both from the emperor Frederick III. and Pope Innocent X. all the civil and ecclesiastical privileges of a medieval foundation. At first, however, it comprised only the faculties of arts and of theology; to these was added in 1729 that of jurisprudence, and in 1764 that of medicine. In this latter faculty Dr See also:Ignatius See also:Dollinger (the father of the historian) was for a long time a distinguished professor. The university library is of especial interest, as including that of an earlier Jesuit foundation and also valuable collections by private donors. Its collection of manuscripts in like manner includes those contained in some thirty suppressed monasteries, convents, and religious institutions at the time of the " secularization." The university of See also:Innsbruck was founded in 1672 by the emperor Leopold I., from whom it received its name of " Academia Leopoldina." In the following century, under the patronage of the empress Maria See also:Theresa, it made considerable progress, and received from her its ancient library and bookshelves in 1745. In 1782 the Innsbruck. university underwent a somewhat singular change, being reduced by the emperor See also:Joseph II. from the status of a university to that of a lyceum, although retaining in the theological faculty the right of conferring degrees. In 1791 it was restored to its privileges by the emperor Leopold II., and since that time the faculties of philosophy, law and medicine have been represented in nearly equal proportions. The foundation of the university of See also:Breslau was contemplated as early as the Breslau. year 1505, when See also:Ladislaus, king of Hungary, gave his sanction to the project; but Pope Julius II., in the assumed interests of Cracow, withheld his assent. Nearly two centuries later, in 1702, under singularly altered conditions, the Jesuits prevailed upon the emperor Leopold I. to found a university without soliciting the papal The sanction. When Frederick the Great conquered Jesuits in Silesia in 1741, he took both the university and the the uni-Jesuits in Breslau under his protection, and when in versify. 1774 the order was suppressed by Clement XIV. he established 'them as priests in the Royal Scholastic See also:Institute, at the same time giving new statutes to the university. In 1811- the university was considerably augmented by the incorporation of that at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and was ultimately reconstituted on lines similar to those of the newly founded university of See also:Berlin. In no country was the influence of the Jesuits on the universities more marked than in France. The civil See also:wars in that country during the thirty years which preceded the close of the 16th century told with disastrous effects upon the condition of the university of Paris, and with the commencement of the ,7th century its collegiate life seemed at an end, and its forty colleges stood absolutely deserted. To this state of affairs the obstinate conservatism of the academic authorities not a little contributed. The statutes by which the university was still governed were those which had been given by the cardinal D'See also:Estouteville, the papal legate, in 1452, and remained entirely unmodified by the influences of the See also:Renaissance. In 1579 the edict of Blois promulgated a scheme of organization for all the universities of the realm (at that time twenty-one in number)—a measure which, though productive of unity of teaching, did nothing towards the See also:advancement of the studies themselves. The theological instruction became largely absorbed by the episcopal colleges, and acquired, in the schools of the different orders, a narrower and more dogmatic character. The eminent lawyers of France, unable to find chairs in Paris, distributed themselves among the chief towns Moscow. {See also:Vilna. Dorpat. Prague. Condition of the Univershy of Paris. of the provinces. The Jesuits did not fail to profit by this immobility and excessive conservatism on the part of the university, and during the second half of the 16th century and the whole of the 17th they had contrived to gain almost a complete See also:monopoly of both the higher and the lower education of provincial France. Their schools rose at Toulouse and Bordeaux, at See also:Auch, See also:Agen, Rhodez, Perigueux, See also:Limoges, Le See also:Puy, See also:Aubenas, colleges See also:Beziers, See also:Tournon, in the colleges of See also:Flanders and Lorof the raine, See also:Douai and See also:Pont-a-Mousson—places beyond Jesuits in the jurisdiction of the parlement of Paris or even France. of the crown of France. Their banishment from Paris itself had been by the decree of the parlement alone, and had never been confirmed by the crown. " See also:Lyons," says See also:Pattison, " loudly demanded a Jesuit college, and even the Huguenot See also:Lesdiguieres, almost king in See also:Dauphine, was preparing to erect one at Grenoble. See also:Amiens, Rheims, See also:Rouen, See also:Dijon, and Bourges were only waiting a favourable opportunity to introduce the Jesuits within their walls." 1 The university was rescued from the fate which seemed to threaten it only by the excellent statutes given by Richer in 1598, and by the discerning protection extended to it by Henry IV., while its higher culture was in some measure provided for by the establishment by See also:Richelieu in 1635 of the Academie francaise. The " college of See also:Edinburgh " was founded by charter of James VI., dated 14th April 1582. This document contains Edia- no reference to a studium generale, nor is there ground See also:burgh, for supposing that the foundation of a university was at that time contemplated. In marked contrast to the three older centres in Scotland, the college rose comparatively untrammelled by the traditions of medievalism, and its creation was not effected without some jealousy and opposition on the part of its predecessors. Its first course of instruction was commenced in the See also:Kirk of Field, under the direction of Robert See also:Rollock, who had been educated at St Andrews under See also:Andrew See also:Melville, the eminent Covenanter. " He began to teach," says See also:Craufurd, " in the lower hall of the great lodging, there being a great concourse of students allured with the great See also:worth of the man; but diverse of them being not ripe enough in the Latin See also:tongue, were in November next put under the See also:charge of Mr See also:Duncan Name, . . . who, upon Mr Rollock's recommendation, was chosen second master of the college."' In 1585 both Rollock and See also:Nairne subscribed the National See also:Covenant, and a like subscription was from that time required from all who were admitted to degrees in the college. Disastrous as were the effects of the Thirty Years' War upon the external condition of the German universities, resulting Results in not a few instances in the total dispersion of the of the students and the burning of the buildings and See also:libraries, Thirty they were less detrimental and less permanent than Years' those which were discernible in the See also:tone and See also:temper of war. these communities. A formal pedan try and unintelligent method of study, combined with a passionate dogmatism in matters of religious belief and a See also:rude contempt for the amenities of social intercourse, became the leading characteristics, and Bane, lasted throughout the 17th century. But in the year 1693 the foundation of the university of See also:Halle opened up a career to two very eminent men, whose influence, widely different as was its character, may be compared for its effects with that of Luther and Melanchthon, and served to modify the whole current of German philosophy and German theology. Halle has indeed been described as " the first real modern university." It was really indebted for its origin to a spirit of rivalry between the conservatism of Saxony and the progressive tendencies of the house of Brandenburg, but the occasion of its rise was the removal of the ducal court from Halle to See also:Magdeburg. The archbishopric of the latter city having passed into the possession of Brandenburg in 168o was changed into a dukedom, and the city itself was selected as the ducal residence. This change left unoccupied some commodious buildings in Halle, which it was decided to utilize for purposes of education. 1 Life of See also:Casaubon, p. 181. 2 Craufurd, Hist. of the Univ. of Edinburgh, pp. 19-28.A " Ritterschule " for the sons of the nobility was opened, and in the course of a few years it was decided to found a university. Saxony endeavoured to thwart the scheme, urging the proximity of Leipzig; but her opposition was overruled by the emperor Leopold I., who granted (19th October 1693) the requisite charter, and in the following year the work of the university commenced. Frankfort-on-the-Oder had by this time become a centre of the Reformed party, and the primary object in founding a university in Halle was to create a centre for the Lutheran party; but its character, under the influence of its two most notable teachers, Christian See also:Thomasius and A. H. See also:Francke, soon See also:expanded influence beyond the limits of this conception to assume a highly of Thom original form. Thomasius and Francke had both asius and been driven from Leipzig owing to the disfavour Franke. with which their liberal and progressive tendencies were there regarded by the academic authorities, and on many points the two teachers were in agreement. They both regarded with contempt alike the scholastic philosophy and the scholastic theology; they both desired to see the rule of the civil power superseding that of the ecclesiastical power in the seats of learning; they were both opposed to the ascendancy of classical studies as expounded by the humanists—Francke regarding the Greek and Roman pagan writers with the old traditional dislike, as immoral, while Thomasius looked upon them with con-tempt, as antiquated and representing only a standpoint which had been long left behind; both again agreed as to the desirability of including the elements of modern culture in the education of the See also:young. But here their agreement ceased. It was the aim of Thomasius, as far as possible, to secularize education, and to introduce among his countrymen French habits and French modes of thought; his own attire was See also:gay and fashionable, and he was in the See also:habit of taking his seat in the professorial chair adorned with See also:gold See also:chain and rings, and with his See also:dagger by his side. Francke, who became the See also:leader of the Pietists, regarded all this with even greater aversion than he did the lifeless orthodoxy traditional in the universities, and was shocked at the worldly tone and disregard for sacred things which characterized his brother professor. Both, however, commanded a considerable following among the students. Thomasius was professor in the faculty of jurisprudence, Francke in that of theology. And it was a common prediction in those days with respect to a student who proposed to pursue his academic career at Halle, that he would infallibly become either an atheist or a Pietist. But the services rendered by Thomasius to learning were genuine and lasting. He was the first to set the example, soon after followed by all the universities of Germany, of lecturing in the See also:vernacular instead of in the customary Latin; and the discourse in which he first departed from the traditional method was devoted to the consideration of how far the German nation might with advantage imitate the French in matters of social life and intercourse. His more general views, as a See also:disciple of the Cartesian philosophy and founder of the modern Rationalismus, exposed him to incessant attacks; but by the establishment of a monthly See also:journal (at that time an original idea) he obtained a channel for expounding his views and refuting his antagonists which gave him a great advantage. On the influence of Francke, as the founder of that Pietistic school with which the reputation of Halle afterwards became especially identified, it is unnecessary here to dilate.' Christian See also:Wolf, who followed Thomasius as an assertor of the new culture, was driven from Halle by the accusations of the Pietists, who declared that his teaching was fraught with atheistical principles. In 1740, however, he was recalled by Frederick II., and reinstated in high office with every mark of consideration and respect. Throughout the whole of the 18th century Halle was the leader of academic thought and advanced theology in Protestant Germany, although sharing that leadership, after the middle of the century, with See also:Gottingen. The university of Gottingen (named after its founder "Georgia See also:Augusta ') g°a m was endowed with the amplest privileges as a university by George II. of England, elector of See also:Hanover, 7th December ' See Paulsen, Gesch. des gelehrten Unterrichts, &c., pp. 348-58. 1736. The imperial sanction of the scheme had been given three years before (13th January 1733), and the university was formally opened 17th September 1737. The king himself assumed the office of " rector magnificentissimus," and the liberality of the royal endowments (doubling those of Halle), and the not less liberal character of the spirit that pervaded its organization, soon raised it to a foremost place among the schools of Germany. Halle had just expelled Wolf; and Gottingen, modelled on the same lines as Halle, but rejecting its See also:Pietism and disclaiming its intolerance, appealed with remark-able success to the most enlightened feeling of the time. It included all the faculties, and two of its first professors—See also:Mosheim, the eminent theologian, from Helmstedt, and G. L. See also:Bohmer, the no less distinguished jurist from Halle—together with See also:Gesner, the man of letters, at once established its reputation. Much of its early success was also due to the supervision of its chief See also:curator (there were two)—See also:Baron Munchhausen, himself a man of considerable attainments, who by his sagacious superintendence did much to promote the general efficiency of the whole professoriate. Not least among its attractions was also its splendid library, located in an ancient monastery, and now containing over 200,000 volumes and 5000 See also:MSS. In addition to its general influence as a distinguished seat of learning, Gottingen may claim to have been mainly instrumental in diffusing a more adequate conception of the importance of the study of history. Before the latter half of the 18th century the mode of treatment adopted by university lecturers was singularly wanting in breadth of view. Profane history was held of but little account, excepting so far as it served to illustrate ecclesiastical and sacred history; while this, again, was invariably treated in the narrow spirit of the polemic, See also:intent mainly on the See also:defence of his own See also:confession, according as he represented the Lutheran or the Reformed Church. The labours of the professors at Gottingen, especially Putter, Gatterer, See also:Schlozer and Spittler, combined with those of Mascov at Leipzig, did much towards promoting both a more catholic treatment and a wider See also:scope. Not less beneficial was the example set at Gottingen of securing the appointment of its professors by a less prejudiced and partial body than a university board is only too likely to become. " ` The Great Munchhausen,' says an illustrious professor of that seminary, ` allowed our university the right of presentation, of designation, or of recommendation, as little as the right of free See also:election; for he was taught by experience that, although the faculties of universities may know the individuals best qualified to supply their vacant chairs, they are seldom or never disposed to propose for appointment the worthiest within their knowledge.'"1 The system of patronage adopted at Gottingen was, in fact, identical with that which had already been instituted in the universities of the Netherlands by Douza. The See also:Erlangen university of Erlangen, a Lutheran centre, was founded by Frederick, margrave of Baireuth. Its charter was granted by the emperor Charles VII., 21st February 1743, and the university was formally constituted, 4th November. From its special See also:guardian, Alexander, the last margrave of See also:Ansbach, it was styled " Academia Alexandrina." In 1791, Ansbach and Baireuth having passed into the possession of Prussia, Erlangen also became subject to the Prussian government, and, as the 19th century advanced, her theological faculty became distinguished by the fervour and ability with which it championed the tenets of Lutheranism. On comparison with the great English universities, the universities of Germany must be pronounced inferior both in point The of discipline and of moral control over the students. See also:Bog/1,h The superiority of the former in these respects is and Ger- partly to be attributed to the more systematic care man ual- which they took, from a very early date, for the super- verslties See also:vision of each student, by requiring that within a compared. certain specified time after his entry into the university he should be registered as a See also:pupil of some master of arts, who was responsible for his conduct, and represented him generally in his relations to the academic authorities. See also:Mar- 1 Hamilton, Discussions, p. 381. burg in its earliest statutes (those of 1529) endeavoured to establish a similar rule, but without success .2 The development of the collegiate system at Oxford and Cambridge materially assisted the carrying out of this discipline. Although again, as in the German universities, feuds were not unfrequent, especially those between " north " and " south " (the natives of the northern and southern counties), the fact that in elections to fellowships and scholarships only a certain proportion were allowed to be taken from either of these divisions acted as a considerable check upon the possibility of any one college representing either element exclusively. In the German universities, on the other hand, the ancient division into nations, which died out with the 15th century, was revived under another form by the institution of national colleges, which largely served to See also:foster the spirit of rivalry and contention. The demoralization induced by the Thirty Years' War and the increase of duelling intensified these tendencies, which, together with the tyranny of the older over the younger students, known as " Pennalismus," were evils against which the authorities con-tended, but ineffectually, by various ordinances. The institution of " Burschentum," having for its design the encouragement of good fellowship and social feeling irrespective of nationality, served only as a partial check upon these excesses, which again received fresh stimulus by the rival institution of " Landsmannschaften," or societies of the same nationality. The latter proved singularly provocative of duelling, while the arrogant and even tyrannical demeanour of their members towards the unassociated students gave rise to a general combination of the latter for the purposes of self-defence and organized resistance. The political storms which marked the close of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century gave the death-See also:blow to not a few of the ancient universities of Germany. Extlnc-Mainz and Cologne ceased to exist in 1798; Bamberg, tion of See also:Dillingen and See also:Duisburg in 1804; Rinteln and Helm- Gemsman stedt in 1809; See also:Salzburg in 1810; Erfurt in 1816. tiesV aur+ Altdorf was united to Erlangen in 1807, Frankfort- on- ing 1798-the-Oder to Breslau in 1809, and Wittenberg to Halle 1815. in 1815. The university of Ingolstadt was first moved in 1802 to See also:Landshut, and from thence in 1826 to See also:Munich, where it was united to the academy of sciences which was founded in the Bavarian capital in 1759. See also:Munster in Prussia Munkh. was for the first time constituted a university in four faculties by Maximilian Frederick (elector and archbishop) in 1771. Its charter was confirmed by Clement XIV. in Munster. 1773, and again by the Emperor Joseph II. The university was abolished in the year 1818; but two faculties, those of theology and philosophy, continued to exist, and in 1843 it received the full privileges of a Prussian university together with the designation of a royal foundation. Of those of the above centres which altogether ceased to exist, but few were much missed or regretted —that at Mainz, which had numbered some six hundred students, being the one notable exception. The others had for the most part fallen into a perfunctory and lifeless mode of teaching, and, with wasted or diminished revenues and declining numbers, had long ceased worthily to represent the functions of a university, while the more studious in each centre were harassed by the frequency with which it was made an arena for political demonstrations. Whatever loss may have attended their suppression was more than compensated by the activity and influence of the three great German universities which rose in the last century. Munich, after having been completely reorganized, soon became a distinguished centre of study in all the faculties; and " Volumus neminem in hanc nostram Academiam admitti, See also:aut per rectorem in See also:album recipi, qui non habeat privatum atque domesticum praeceptorem, qui ejus discipulum agnoscat, ad cujus judicium quisque pro sua ingenii capacitate atque Marte lecturas et publicas et privatas audiat, a cujus latere aut raro aut nunquam discedat." See also:Koch expressly compares this provision with the discipline of Oxford and Cambridge, which, down to the commencement of the present century, was very much of the same character (Koch, Gesch. des academischen Padagogiums in Marburg, p. 11). its numbers, allowing for two great wars, have been continuously on the increase, the eminence of its professoriate, among whom have been Dollinger, See also:Liebig, See also:Schelling, Zeuss and Giesebrecht, having attracted students from all parts of Europe. The university of Berlin, known as the Royal See also:Friedrich Wilhelm University, was founded in 1809, immediately after the Bedln. peace of See also:Tilsit, when Prussia had been reduced to the level of a third-See also:rate Power. Under the guiding influence of Wilhelm von See also:Humboldt, however, supported by the strong purpose of Frederick William III., the principles adopted in connexion with the new seat of learning not only raised it to a foremost place among the universities of Europe, but also largely conduced to the regeneration of Germany. It had not only incorporated at the time of its foundation the famous " Academy of Sciences " of the city, but expressly repudiated all See also:attachment to any particular creed or school of thought, and professed subservience only to the interests of science and learning. " Each of the eminent teachers with whom the university began its life—F. A. See also:Wolfe, See also:Fichte, Savigny, Reil—represented only himself, the path of inquiry or the completed theory which he had himself propounded. Its subsequent growth was astonishing, and before the 19th century closed the number of its matriculated students exceeded that of every other university except Vienna."
The university of See also:Bonn, founded in 1818 and also by Friedrich Wilhelm III., thus became known as the Rhenish Friedrich Bonn Wilhelm University—it being the design of the founder
to introduce into the See also:Rhine provinces the classic literature and the newly developed scientific knowledge of Germany proper. With this aim he summoned to his aid the best available See also:talent, among the earlier instructors being See also:Niebuhr, A. W. von See also:Schlegel, with C. F. Nasse in the faculty of medicine and G. See also:Hermes in that of theology. In the last-named faculty it further became noted for the manner in which it combined the opposed schools of theological doctrine—that of the Evangelical (or Lutheran) Church and that of the Roman Catholic Church here See also:standing side by side, and both adorned by eminent names. After the war with Austria in 1859 the German universities underwent a considerable change owing to the enforced military service required by the law of 1867; and the events of 187o were certainly not disconnected with the martial spirit which had been evoked in the student world, while in the universities themselves there had risen up a new and more lively interest in political affairs.
In 1878 a comparison of the numbers of the students in the different faculties in the Prussian universities with those for the year 1867 showed a remarkable diminution in the faculty of theology, amounting in Lutheran centres to more than one-half, and in Catholic centres to nearly three-fourths. In jurisprudence there was an increase of nearly two-fifths, in medicine a decline of a third, and in philosophy an increase of one-See also:fourth.
The universities of the United Provinces, like those of Protestant Germany, were founded by the state as schools for the untver- maintenance of the principles of the Reformation and sitles of the education of the clergy, and afforded in the 16th
United and 17th centuries a grateful refuge to not a few of
Pro- those Huguenot erPort-Royalistscholars whompersecu-
V1°Ce'' tion compelled to flee beyond the boundaries of France, as well as to the Puritan divines who were driven from England. The earliest, that of See also:Leiden (in what was then the See also:county
Letden. of See also: Throughout the 17th century Leiden was distinguished by its learning, the ability of its professors, and the shelter it afforded to the more liberal thought associated at that period with Arminianism. Much of its early success was owing to the wise provisions and the influence of the celebrated See also:Janus Douza:— " Douza's principles," says Hamilton, " were those which ought to regulate the practice of all academical patrons; and they were those of his successors. He knew that at the rate learning was seen prized by the state inthe academy, would it be valued by the nation at large He knew that professors wrought more even by example and influence than by teaching, that it was theirs to See also:pitch high or low the standard of learning in a country, and that, as it proved easy or arduous to come up with them, they awoke either a restless endeavour after an even loftier attainment, or lulled into a self-satisfied conceit." Douza was, for Leiden and the Dutch, what Munchhausen afterwards was for Gottingen and the German universities. " But with this difference: Leiden was the model on which the younger universities of the See also:republic were constructed; Gottingen the model on which the older universities of the empire were reformed. Both Munchhausen and Douza proposed a high ideal for the schools founded under their auspices; and both, as first curators, laboured with See also:paramount influence in realizing this ideal for the same long period of thirty-two years. Under their patronage Leiden and Gottingen took the highest place among the universities of Europe; and both have only lost their relative supremacy by the application in other seminaries of the same measures which had at first determined their superiority." The appointment of the professors at Leiden was vested in three (afterwards five) curators, one of whom was selected from the body of the nobles, while the other two were appointed by the states of the province—the office being held for nine years, and eventually for life. With these was associated the See also:mayor of Leiden for the time being. The university of See also:Franeker was Franeker. founded in 1585 on a somewhat less liberal basis than Leiden, the professors being required to declare their assent to the rule of faith embodied in the Heidelberg See also:Catechism and the confession of the " Belgian Church." Its four faculties were those of theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and " the three languages and the liberal arts."' For a period of twelve years (c. 1610–22) the reputation of the university was enhanced by the able teaching of William See also:Ames (" Amesius "), a Puritan divine and moralist who had been driven by Archbishop See also:Bancroft from Cambridge and from England. His fame and ability are said to have attracted to Franeker students from Hungary, Poland and Russia. With similar organization were founded the universities of Harderwijk (i600), See also:Groningen (1614) and See also:Utrecht (1634), the last-named being much frequented in the 18th Harder century by both English and Scottish students who wl]k. repaired thither to obtain instruction of a kind that amnia-Oxford and Cambridge at that time failed altogether Se°' to impart—more than a fourth of the students of utrecht. Utrecht about the year 1736 being of those nationalities. In the 19th century, however, political considerations began seriously to diminish such intercourse between different centres, and during the first See also:Napoleon's See also:tenure of the imperial dignity the universities in both the "kingdom of Holland" and the Austrian Netherlands (as they were then termed) were in great peril. But on the settlement of Europe in 1814–15 the restoration of the house of Orange and consequent formation of the " kingdom of the Netherlands " brought both realms under a single rule. The universities of Franeker and Harderwijk were suppressed, and those of See also:Ghent and See also:Liege created, while a See also:uniform constitution was given both to the Dutch and Belgian universities. It was also provided that there should be attached to each a board of curators, consisting of five persons, " distinguished by their love of literature and science and by their rank in society," to be nominated by the king, and at least three of them to be chosen from the province in which the university was situated, the other two from adjacent provinces. After the See also:lapse of another fifteen years, however, the kingdom of the Netherlands having been reduced to its present limits and the kingdom of See also:Belgium (identical for the most part with the Austrian Netherlands) newly created, an endeavour was made in dealing with the whole question of secondary education to give a See also:fuller recognition to both traditional See also:creeds and ethnic See also:affinities. At Louvain, the chief Catholic centre, the faculties of law, medicine 1 Statuta et Leges (Franeker, 1647), p. 3. Fluctuations of numbers in the faculty of theology.. Ghent. Liege. Amster- the loss of Franeker and Harderwijk, and the progress See also:dam. of this new centre during the first ten years of its existence was remarkably rapid. The higher education of See also:women has made some progress in the Netherlands. In See also:Sweden the foundation of the university of Upsala, sanctioned in 1477 by Sixtus IV. as a studium generale on the model of Bologna, was followed at a long interval by that of See also:Lund (1666), which was created during the minority of Charles XI. with statutes and privileges almost identical with those of Upsala and with an endowment largely derived from the alienated revenues of the chapter of the cathedral. The students were recruited from Denmark, Germany and Sweden; and Puffendorf, the civilian, was one of its first professors. During Charles's reign its resources were in turn confiscated, and the university itself was closed in 1676 in consequence of the war with Denmark. When again opened it remained for a long time in a very depressed condition, from which it failed to rally until the 19th century, when it took a new departure, and the erection of its handsome new buildings (1882) invested it with additional attractions. The royal university of Upsala, roused to new life in the 17th century by the introduction of the Cartesian philosophy, has been throughout (notwithstanding its singularly chequered history), the chief home of the higher See also:Swedish education. In the 18th century lectures began to be delivered in Swedish; while the medieval division of the students into " nations " continued, as at Lund, until the second quarter of the loth. The various changes and events during the interesting period 1872 to 1897 have been recorded at length in the national tongue by See also:Reinhold See also:Geijer in a hand- some See also:quarto which appeared in 1897. See also:Gothenburg, on the other hand, with its society of science and literature, dating from 1841, has represented rather a popular institution, existing independently of the state, maintained chiefly by private contributions, and governed by a board called the Curatorium. For a long time it was not empowered to hold See also:examinations. See also:Stockholm (1878) still remains a gymnasium, but its curriculum is to a certain extent supplemented by its connexion with Upsala, from which it is little more than forty See also:miles distant by See also:rail. The university of See also:Christiania in See also:Norway, founded in 1811, and the Swedish universities are strongly Lutheran Chris" in character; and all alike are closely associated Ganla' with the ecclesiastical institutions of the Scandinavian kingdoms. The same observation applies to Copenhagen—where, however, the labours of See also:Rask and See also:Madvig have done much to sustain the reputation of the university for learning. See also:Kiel. The royal university of Kiel was founded in 1665 by Duke Christian Albrecht of See also:Holstein (who himself assumed the office of rector) with faculties of theology, law, medicine and philosophy. It maintained its ground, although not without difficulty, amid the feuds that frequently arose between its dukes and the See also:kings of Denmark, and under the rule of See also:Catherine II. of Russia and after the incorporation of See also:Schleswig-Holstein with the kingdom of Denmark made a marked advance. In the latter half of last century it acquired new buildings and rose into high reputation as a school of See also:chemistry, See also:physiology and See also:anatomy, while its library in 1904 exceeded 250,000 volumes. The number of universities founded in the last century is in striking contrast to the paucity which characterizes the two preceding centuries, an increase largely resulting, however, from the needs of English colonies and dependencies. In the Mediterranean, See also:Genoa (1812), See also:Messina (1838) and Genoa. See also:Marseilles (1854) were foundations which supplied a Messina. genuine want and have gradually attained to a fair Mar• measure of success. The first had previously existed series. as a school of law and medicine, but when, along with the rest of the Ligurian republic, it became incorporated in the empire under Napoleon I., the emperor, in order to conciliate the population, raised it to the rank of a university in 1812. The university subsequently See also:fell into the hands of the Jesuits, who maintained their tenure of the principal chairs until the unification of the Italian kingdom under Victor Emmanuel, when Messina, which had been founded during the rule of the Bourbons over the Two Sicilies, became similarly included under Italian rule. Of Marseilles mention has above been made. In France the fortunes of academic learning were even less happy than in Germany. The university of See also:Dole in Franche See also:Comte had for two hundred years been a flourishing Dole. centre of higher education for the See also:aristocracy, and was consequently regarded with envy by See also:Besancon. In 1691, however, when the country had been finally ceded to France, and Savoy had been subjugated by the arms of Catina, Louis XIV. was induced, on the payment of a considerable sum, to transfer the university to Besancon. Here it forthwith acquired enhanced importance under the direction of the Jesuits. But in 1722, on the creation of a university at Dijon, the [von. faculty of law was removed to that city, where it continued to exist until the Revolution. The university of Paris indeed was distracted, throughout the 17th century, by theological dissensions—in the first instance owing to the struggle that ensued after the mover. Jesuits had effected a footing at the College de Clermont,and subsequently by the strife occasioned by Paris the teaching of the Jansenists. Its studies, discipline from the and numbers alike suffered. Towards the close of 17th the century a certain revival took place, and a suc- cenury. cession of illustrious names—Pourchot, See also:Rollin, Grenai, See also:Coffin, Demontempuys, See also:Crevier, See also:Lebeau—appear on the roll of its teachers. But this improvement was soon interrupted by the controversies excited by the promulgation of the bull Unigenitus in 1713, condemning the tenets of See also:Quesnel, when Rollin himself, although a man of singularly pacific disposition, deemed it his duty to head the opposition to Clement XI. and the French episcopate. At last, in 1762, the parlement of Paris issued a decree (August 6) placing the colleges of the Jesuits at the disposal of the university, and this was immediately followed by another for the expulsion of the order from Paris, the university being installed in possession of their vacated premises. Concurrently with this measure, the curriculum of prescribed studies assumed a more hopeful character, and both history and natural science began to be cultivated with a certain success. These innovations, however, were soon lost sight of in the more sweeping changes which followed upon the Revolution. On the 15th of September 1793 the universities and colleges throughout France, together with the faculties of theology, medicine, jurisprudence and arts, were abolished by a decree of the See also:convention, and the whole system of national education may be said to have remained in See also:abeyance, until, in 1808, Napoleon I. promulgated the scheme which in its essential features is almost identical with that which at present obtains—the whole system of education, both secondary and primary, being made subject to the control and direction of the state. In pursuance of this conception, the " university of France," as it was henceforth styled, became little more and philosophy had already, in 1788, been removed to Brussels Brussels. —an ahnost unique example of a university which owed its origin neither to a temporal nor an ecclesi- astical authority—and in 1834 Brussels was constituted a free and independent university with a new fourth faculty of natural science, and supported mainly by contributions from the Liberal party. Having, however, no charter, it continued incapable by law of possessing property. While Louvain and Brussels thus represented to a great extent the two chief political parties in the realm, the universities of Ghent on the See also:Scheldt and Liege on the See also:Meuse recruited their students mainly from the two chief races—the Flemish and the Walloon. In Holland, on the other hand, where no such marked racial differences exist, the universities of Groningen, Leiden and Utrecht have been assimilated (1876) in constitution, each being administered by a See also:consistory of five rectors with a senate composed of the professors in the respective faculties. The foundation of the university of See also:Amsterdam (1877) more than repaired Universkies of Sweden and Norway. Lund. Upsala. than an abstract terms signifying collectively the various centres of professional education in their new relations to the state. All France was divided into seventeen districts, designated " See also:academies," each administered by its own rector and council, but subject to the supreme authority of the minister of public instruction, and representing certain faculties which varied at different centres in conformity with the new scheme of distribution for the entire country. While, accordingly, three new " academies "—those of See also:Lille, Lyons and See also:Rennes—date their commencement from 1808, Ll/ie, many of the pre-existing centres were completely sup- Lyons pressed. In some cases, however, the effacement and of an ancient institution was avoided by investing Rennes. it with new importance, as at Grenoble; in others, the vacated premises were appropriated to new uses connected with the department, as at Avignon, Cahors and Perpignan. Each rector of an " academy " was also constituted See also:president of a local conseil d'enseignement, in conjunction with which he nominated the professors of lycees and the communal schoolmasters,2 these appointments being subsequently ratified by a promotion See also:committee sitting in Paris. In 1895, however, fnsatu- the government was prevailed upon to sanction the See also:awl of institution of certain " free faculties," as they were "free termed, to be placed under the direction of the bishop, faculties." and depending for support upon voluntary contributions, and each including a faculty of theology. The faculty at Marseilles, on the other hand, which originated in an earlier " faculty of sciences " founded in 1854, was now called upon to share the governmental grant with Aix, and the two centres became known as the Academie d'Aix-Marseillethe faculties in the latter being restricted to See also:mathematics and natural science (including a medical school), while faculties of law and philosophy were fixed at Aix, which possesses also the university library properly so termed. In the capital itself, the university of Paris and the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes carried on the work of higher instruction independently of each other—the former with faculties of Protestant theology, law, medicine, science, letters and chemistry distributed over the Quartier Latin; the latter with schools of mathematics, natural science, history, See also:philology, and history of religions centred at the Sorbonne. The College de France, founded in the 16th century by Francis I., was from the first regarded with hostility both by the university and by the Sorbonne. It became, instruction in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, that it not only held its ground, but at the Revolution ultimately sur- vived alike the universities and their hostility. As reconstituted in 1831 it became chiefly known as an institution for the in- struction of adults, and its See also:staff of professors, some fifty in number (including their deputies), has comprised from time to time the names of not a few of the most distinguished scholars and men of science in the country. The university of had been distinguished by an intellectual activity which became associated with the names of See also:Goethe, See also:Herder and others, was also swept away by the Revolution. It was revived in 1804 as a Protestant " academy," but four years later incorporated in the newly created " academy " of See also:Nancy, with a faculty of Protestant theology which lasted only until 1818. In See also:Switzerland the universities shared in the conflicts handed down from the days when the Helvetic republic had been first created, and each with somewhat similar ex- See also:Band or See also:League of the Catholic Cantons, the Con-federates divided the See also:canton into two, and agreed to raise the 2It retains a certain professional meaning, in that a student studying for the " university " is understood to be one who is himself aiming at the profession of a teacher in a lycee. 2 The prefet of the department has since taken the place of the rector with regard to nominations. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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