See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

The north See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

Of the rest of the island the greater part forms a See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

In both areas they are accompanied by See also:

• JURASSIC

the coldest and that of the hottest See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

See also:

• MALARIA

In this way the See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

The chief towns in each of these provinces, with their communal populations in 1901, are as follow: Caltanissetta (43,023), See also:

• CASTROGIOVANNI (Arab. Kasr-Yani, a corruption of Castrum Ennae)

The See also:

• SYSTEM

These also are largely exported to central Europe for use in the manufacture of See also:

• CHOCOLATE

The Sicilian See also:

• RACE

Nineteen-twentieths of the sulphur consumed in the See also:

• WORLD

See also:

• PUMICE (Lat. purnex, spumex, spuma, froth)

1917 563,457 703,598 63 371 Girgenti 1172 3,2,487 380,666 41 317 Messina . 1246 460,924 550,895 97 440 Palermo . 1948 699,151 796,151 76 403 Syracuse 1442 341,5z6 433,796 32 296 Trapani 948 283,977 373,569 20 373 9936 *2,927,901 3,568,124 357 Av. 352 profits were about £75,264, the expenses being £64,664. The sponge See also:

• DIVERS

Another flourishing Sicilian industry carried on by a large number of small houses is that of preserving vegetables in tins. Artichokes and See also:

• TOMATO

Giovanni and Reggio, on which the through carriages are conveyed across the straits. From Messina lines run along the northern coast to Palermo, and along the east coast via Catania to Syracuse: the latter line is prolonged along the south of the island (sometimes approaching, sometimes leaving the coast) via Canicatti as far as Aragona Caldare, Girgenti and See also:

• PORTO

A steamer leaves See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

See also:

• BRIGANDAGE

Lying nearer to the mainland of Europe and nearer to See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

In the later See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

Then came the tendency in the dominant See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

In Sicily therefore the Greek became more See also:

• CONTINENTAL

The island itself, MuceXia, Sicilia, plainly takesits name from the Sicels (IiuceXot, See also:

• SICULI

That the Sicels spoke a See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

P. Orsi in Notizie degli scavi, 1898, 223), and probably both are branches of the Libyco-Iberian stock. Whereas other remains attributable to their villages or settlements are rare, their rock-hewn tombs are found by the thousand in the limestone cliffs of south-eastern Sicily. Those of the earliest period, the lower limit of which is put about 1500 B.C., are aeneolithic, metal being, however, rare and only found in the form of small ornaments; pottery with linear decoration is abundant. The second period (Isoo-I000 B.C.) shows a great increase in the use of See also:

• BRONZE

Typical cemeteries of this period have been found at Licodia Eubea, Ragusa and Grammichele. After the failure of Ducetius to re-establish the Sicel See also:

• NATIONALITY

Phoenician settlement in Sicily began before Carthage became great, perhaps before Carthage came into being. A See also:

• CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH

The next year See also:

• CORINTH
• CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF

Many of them gradually sank into a not wholly unwilling subjection as cultivators of the soil under Greek masters. But there were also independent Sicel towns in the interior, and there was a strong religious intercommunion between the two races. Sicel Henna (Enna, Castrogiovanni) is the special seat of the See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

To say nothing of lawgivers like See also:

• CHARONDAS

One such power held dominion both in Italy and Sicily. Anaxilaus of Rhegium, by a long and See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

There were Siceliots defeated, spared by the Syracusans on whose See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

Acragas to Syracuse, most of those in other parts of the island remained Hiero% meanwhile flourished under Thero; but a war between independent. Of the Sicans we hear less; but Hyccara in the him and Hiero led to slaughter and new settlement at Himera. north-west was an independent Sican See also:

• TOWN

See also:

• ART

But struck out higher paths. See also:

• EMPEDOCLES (c. 490–430 B.C.)

Diodorus's account of a war between Athenian help against its Greek See also:

• NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

As early as 48o (Freeman successful, would have changed the whole See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

The war is instructive in many ways. It reminds us of the general conditions of Greek See also:

• SEAMANSHIP

But before the war in old Greece was over, seventy years after the great victory of Gelo (41o), the Greeks of Sicily had to undergo barbarian invasion on a vaster See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

Meanwhile the revolutions of Syracuse affected the history of Sicily and of the whole Greek world. See also:

• DIONYSIUS
• DIONYSIUS (c. 432–367 B.C.)

More than half Sicily was now under barbarian dominion; several of its noblest cities had perished, and a tyrant was established in the greatest. The 5th century B. C., after its central years of freedom and prosperity, ended in far deeper darkness than it had begun. The minuter account of Dionysius belongs to Syracusan history; but his position, one unlike anything that had been before seen in Sicily or elsewhere in Hellas, forms an epoch in the history of Europe. His only See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

Before the first war his See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

Dionysius then planted mercenaries at Leontini, conquered some Sicel. towns, Henna among them, and made alliances with others. He restored Messana, peopling it with See also:

• MOTLEY
• MOTLEY, JOHN LOTHROP (1814–1897)

This way of speaking would imply that Agyrium had so far advanced in Greek ways as to run the usual course of a Greek See also:

• COMMONWEALTH

In the Adriatic he helped Hellenic See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

Dionysius had also to pay woo talents, which caused him to be spoken of as becoming tributary to the barbarians. In the last years of his reign we hear dimly of both Syracusan and Carthaginian operations in southern Italy. He also gave help to Sparta against See also:

• THEBES (anciently &Oat, Thebae, or in poetry sometimes Oif3a, in modern Greek Phiva, or, according to the corrected pronunciation, Thivae)
• THEBES (e 3a1)
• THEBES, ROMANCE OF

They See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

The work of Timoleon (q.v.), whose headquarters were first at Tauromenium, then at Hadranum, was threefold—the immediate deliverance of Syracuse, the restoration of Sicily in general to freedom and Greek life, and the See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

For more than three years (310-307) each side carried on warfare in the land of the other. Carthage was hard pressed by Agathocles, while Syracuse was no 'less hard pressed by Hamilcar. The force with which Agathocles invaded Africa was far from being wholly Greek; but it was representatively European. Gauls, See also:

• SAMNITES

A new See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

Agathocles in his old age took a wife of the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

His Sicilian war (278–276)1 was a mere interlude between the two acts of his war with Rome. As son-in-See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

The established rule of Carthage in western Sicily was now something that could well be Htem ff. endured alongside of the robber commonwealth at Messana. The dominion of the freebooters was spreading. Besides the whole north-eastern corner of the island, it reached inland to Agyrium and Centoripa. The Mamertines leagued with other Campanian freebooters who had forsaken the service of Rome to establish themselves at Rhegium. But a new Syracusan power was growing up to meet them. Hiero, claiming descent from Gelo, pressed the Mamertines hard. He all but drove them to the surrender of Messana; he even helped Rome to chastise her own rebels at Rhegium. The wrestling-ground was thus opened for the two barbarian commonwealths. Carthaginian troops held the Messanian citadel against Hiero, while another party in Messana craved the help of the head of Italy. Rome, chastiser of the freebooters of Rhegium, saw Italian brethren in the freebooters of Messana. The exploits of Hiero had already won him the kingly title (270) at Syracuse, and he was the representative of Hellenic life and independence throughout the island. Partly in this character, partly as direct See also:

• SOVEREIGN

But he could not aspire to the dominion of earlier Syracusan rulers. The advance of Rome after the See also:

• RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

By the treaty which ended the war in 241 Carthage ceded to Rome all her possessions in Sicily. As that part of the island which kept a national Greek government became the 276410 first kingdom dependent on Rome, so the share of a.c. Carthage became the first Roman province. Messana alone remained an Italian ally of Rome on Sicilian soil. We have no picture of Sicily in the first period of Roman rule. One See also:

• HUNDRED

Within the Roman province the new state of things called forth much discontent; but Hiero remained the faithful ally of Rome through a long life. On his death (216) and the See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

Roman tastes now came in; Roman buildings, especially amphitheatres, arose. The Mamertines were Roman citizens, and Netum, Centuripae and Segesta had become Latin, perhaps by a See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

There was a single Frankish attack under See also:

• PROBUS, MARCUS AURELIUS
• PROBUS, MARCUS VALERIUS

The Vandal now dwelt at Carthage instead of the Canaanite. See also:

• GAISERIC

Theodoric gave back Lilybaeum to the Vandal king Thrasamund as the dowry had taken the Roman side, Tauromenium and Netos, were admitted to the full privileges of Roman alliance. Tauromenium indeed was more highly favoured than Messana. Rome had a right to demand See also:

• SHIPS

With the See also:

• INCORPORATION (from Lat. incorporare, to form into a body)

37, 40, 73). Even ii, Greek, Fiuc XoL is now sometimes used instead of ItKeXuerta. All the persons spoken of by See also:

• CICERO

The slaves were most harshly treated, and even encouraged by their masters to rob. The land was full of disorder, and the praetors shrank from enforcing the law against offenders, many of whom, as Roman knights, might be their own See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

Vand. i. 8). Yet Lilybaeum of races. The older religious See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

Panormus alone was stoutly death, Saracen inroads began much sooner. In defended by its Gothic See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

That was the See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

But the first Saracen conquest. Saracen settlers in Sicily were the African neighbours of Sicily, and they were called to the work by a home See also:

• TREASON (Fr. trahison, Lat. traditio)

The advance of the invaders was slow. In two years all that was done was to occupy Mazzara and Mineum—the old Menae of Ducetius—strange points certainly to begin with, and seemingly to destroy Agrigentum, well used to destruction. Attacks on Syracuse failed; so did attacks on Henna--Castrum Ennae, 8294060. now changing into Castrum Johannis (perhaps Kavrpo tavvrt), Castrogiovanni. The actual gain was small; but the invaders took seizin alike of the coast and of the island. A far greater conquest followed when new invaders came from Spain and when Theodotus was killed in 830. The next year Panormus pased away for ever from Roman, for 230 years from Christian, rule. Syracuse was for fifty years, not only, as of old, the See also:

• BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from bol or bole, a tree-trunk, and werk, work, in Ger. Bollwerk, which has also been derived from an old German bolen, to throw, and so a machine for throwing missiles)

This is into three valleys, known in later forms of See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

Some things tend to make Sicily look less Greek than it really was. The great source of our knowledge of Sicily in the century which followed the reconquest by Belisarius is the Letters of Pope Gregory the Great, and they naturally show the most Latin side of things. The merely official use of Latin was, it must be remembered, common to Sicily with Constantinople. Gregory's Letters are largely occupied with the affairs of the great Sicilian estates held by the Roman church, as by the churches of See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Orsi in the Notizie degli scavi, and in Byzantinische Zeitschrift (1898, 1; 1899, 613). Of paganism we find no trace, save that See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

From Panormus the amir or lord of Sicily, Mahommed See also:

• IBN

The next year the city passed for the first time under the yoke of strangers to the fellowship of Europe. Thus in fifty-one years the imperial and Christian territory in Sicily was cut down to a few points on or near the eastern coast, to the Val Demone in short without Messana. But between Moslem dissension and Christian valour the struggle had still to be waged for eighty-seven years. Henna had been the chief centre of Christian resistance a generation earlier; its place was now taken by the small fort of Rametta not far from Messina. The Moslems of Sicily were busy in civil wars; See also:

• ARABS

It had not yet wholly passed away; but the day soon came. Strange to say, as Syracuse fell in the reign of Basil the Macedonian, the Saracen occupation was completed in the reign of Nikephoros Phokas (Nicephorus See also:

• PHOCAS

But the great conqueror had left behind him men trained in his school, and eleven years later the eagles of the new Rome again marched to Sicilian victories. The ravages of the Sicilian Saracens in the Greek islands were more frightful than ever, and George Maniaces, the first See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

But a conqueror came who had no empresses to thwart him. In ro6o began the thirty years' work of the first See also:

• ROGER (d. 1139)
• ROGER (d. 1181)

But, as ever, the condition of the subject race grew worse. After the complete conquest of the island, while the mere slaves had turned Mahommedans, there is nothing more heard of tributary districts. At the coming of the Normans the whole Christian population was in the state of rayahs. Still Christianity. and the Greek tongue never died out; churches and monasteries received and held property; there still are See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

The Normans held all Sicily as the centre of a dominion which stretched far beyond it. The conquest was the work of one man, Count Roger of the house of Hauteville (see ROGER I.). The conquests of the Normans in Italy and Sicily form part of one enterprise; but they altogether differ in character. In Italy they overthrew the Byzantine dominion; their own rule was perhaps not worse, but they were not deliverers. In Sicily they were welcomed by the Christians as deliverers from infidel bondage. As in the Saracen conquest of Sicily, as in the Byzantine recovery, so in the Norman conquest, the immediate occasion was given by a home traitor. Count Roger had already made 1060-1040. a plundering attack, when Becumen of Catania, driven out by his brother, urged him to serious invasion. Messina was taken in ro6o, and became for a while the Norman capital. The Christians everywhere welcomed the conqueror. But at Troina they presently changed'their minds, and joined with the Saracens to besiege the count in their citadel. At Catania Becumen was set up again as Roger's vassal, and he did good service till he was killed. Roger soon began to See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

Against that city he had See also:

• PISAN, CHRISTINE DE (1364-c. 1430)

Next year followed Girgenti and Castrogiovanni, whose chief became a Christian. Noto held out till 1090. Then the whole island was won, and Roger completed his conquest by a successful expedition to See also:

• MALTA
• MALTA (or MEDITERRANEAN) FEVER

Mal. iv. 29). But Greek worship went on; at Messina it lingered till the 15th century (Pirro, Sicilia sacra, i. 420, 431, 449), as it has been since brought back by the Albanian colonists. But the Greeks of Sicily have long been united Greeks, admitting the authority of the see of Rome. In its results the Norman conquest of Sicily was a Latin conquest far more thorough than that which had been made by the Roman commonwealth. The Norman princes Linguistic protected all the races, creeds and tongues of the elements island, Greek, Saracen and See also:

• JEW, THE WANDERING

The See also:

• LANGUAGES