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COURT YARD PkOP See also:STREET soo STREET _ .rlss//eAt.E w/lN j%FEET a/z.a.s iririi i 1 so HO See also:loo antiquaries, and certainly unconnected with See also:Roman See also:Britain (see See also:ERMINE STREET). Instead, we may distinguish four See also:main See also:groups of roads radiating from See also:London, and a fifth which runs obliquely. One road ran See also:south-See also:east to See also:Canterbury and the Kentish ports, of which Richborough (Rutupiae) was the most frequented. A second ran See also:west to See also:Silchester, and thence by various branches to See also:Winchester, See also:Exeter, See also:Bath, See also:Gloucester and South See also:Wales. - A third, known afterwards to the See also:English as Watling Street, ran by St Albans See also:Wall near See also:Lichfield (Letocetum), to Wroxeter and See also:Chester. It also gave See also:access by a See also:branch to See also:Leicester and See also:Lincoln. A See also:fourth served See also:Colchester, the eastern counties, Lincoln and See also:York. The fifth is that known to the English as the See also:Fosse, which joins Lincoln and Leicester with See also:Cirencester, Bath and Exeter. Besides these five groups, an obscure road, called by the See also:Saxons Akeman Street, gave alternative access from London through Alchester (outside of See also:Bicester) to Bath, while another obscure road winds south from near See also:Sheffield, past See also:Derby and See also:Birmingham, and connects the See also:lower See also:Severn with the See also:Humber. By these roads and their various branches the See also:Romans provided adequate communications throughout the lowlands of Britain. IV. The End of Roman Britain.—Early in the 4th See also:century it was necessary to establish a See also:special See also:coast See also:defence, reaching from the See also:Wash to Spithead, against Saxon pirates: there were forts at Brancaster, See also:Borough See also:Castle (near See also:Yarmouth), Bradwell (at the mouth of the See also:Colne and See also:Blackwater), Reculver; See also:Rich-borough, See also:Dover and Lymme (all in See also:Kent), See also:Pevensey in See also:Sussex, Porchester near See also:Portsmouth, and perhaps also at See also:Felixstowe in See also:Suffolk. After about 350, See also:barbarian assaults, not only of Saxons but also of Irish (Scoti) and Picts, became commoner and more terrible. At the end of the century See also:Magnus See also:Maximus, claiming to be See also:emperor, withdrew many troops from Britain and a later pretender did the same. See also:Early in the 5th century the See also:Teutonic See also:conquest of See also:Gaul cut the See also:island off from See also:Rome. This does not mean that there was any See also:great " departure of Romans." The central See also:government simply ceased to send the usual See also:governors and high See also:officers. The Romano-See also:British were See also:left to themselves. Their position was weak. Their fortresses See also:lay in the See also:north and west, while the Saxons attacked the east and south. Their trained troops, and even their own See also:numbers, must have been few. It is intelligible that they followed a precedent set by Rome in that See also:age, and hired Saxons to repel Saxons. But they could not command the fidelity of their mercenaries, and the Saxon peril only See also:grew greater. It would seem as if the Romano-Britons were speedily driven from the east of the island. Even Wroxeter on the Welsh border may have been finally destroyed before the end of the 5th century. It seems that the Saxons though apparently unable to maintain their hold so far to the west, were able to prevent the natives from recovering the lowlands. Thus driven from the centres of Romanized See also:life, from the region of walled cities and civilized houses, into the hills of Wales and the north-west, the provincials underwent an intelligible See also:change. The See also:Celtic See also:element, never quite See also:extinct in those hills and, like most forms of barbarism, reasserting itself in this See also:wild age—not without reinforcement from Ireland—challenged the remnants of Roman See also:civilization and in the end absorbed them. The Celtic See also:language reappeared; the Celtic See also:art emerged from its shelters in the west to develop in new and See also:medieval fashions.
Of See also:modern See also:works the best See also:summary for Roman Britain and for See also:Caesar's invasions is T. R. See also:Holmes, See also:Ancient Britain (1907), who cites numerous authorities. See also See also:Sir See also: See also:Kemble and A. W. See also:Franks' Horae Ferales (1863), and See also:Arthur J. Evans in Archaeologia, vols. M.-Iv. Celtic See also:ethnology and See also:philology (see See also:CELT) are still in the " age of discussion." For ancient earthworks sec A. See also:Hadrian Allcroft, Earthwork of See also:England (1909). For Roman Britain see, in See also:general, Prof. F. Haverfield, The Romanization of Roman Britain (See also:Oxford, 1906), and his articles in the See also:Victoria See also:County See also:History; also the See also:chapter in See also:Mommsen's Roman Provinces; and an See also:article in the See also:Edinburgh See also:Review, 1899. For the wall of Hadrian see John See also:Hodgson, History of See also:Northumberland (184o) ; J. C. See also:Bruce, Roman Wall (3rd ed., 1867) ; reports of excavations by Haverfield in the See also:Cumberland Archaeological Society Transactions (1894-1904) ; and R. C. Bosanquet, Roman See also:Camp at Housesteads (See also:Newcastle, 1904). For the Scottish Excavations see Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of See also:Scotland, xx.-xl., and especially J. See also:Macdonald, See also:Bar See also: Macdonald, Roman Stones in Hunterian See also:Miss. (1897) ; and, though an older See also:work, See also:Stuart's See also:Caledonia See also:Romana (1852). For Silchester, Archaeologia (1890-19o8); for Caerwent (ib. 1901-1908); for London, See also: Rev. (1904); Prof. See also:Bury's Life of St See also:Patrick (1905) ; Haverfield's Romanization (cited above) ; and P. See also:Vinogradoff, Growth of the See also:Manor (1905), bk. i. (F. J. H.)
ANGLO-SAXON BRITAIN
r. History.—The history of Britain after the withdrawal of the Roman troops is extremely obscure, but there can be little doubt that for many years the inhabitants of the provinces were exposed to devastating raids by the Picts and Scots. " According to See also:Gildas it was for See also:protection against these incursions that the Britons decided to See also:call in the Saxons. Their See also:allies soon obtained a decisive victory; but subsequently they turned their arms against the Britons themselves, alleging that they had not received sufficient See also:payment for their services. A somewhat different See also:account, probably of English origin, may be traced in the Historia Brittonum, according to which the first leaders of the Saxons, See also:Hengest and See also:Horse., came as exiles, seeking the protection of the British See also: Eventually, however, they overcame the Britons through treachery, by inducing the king to allow them to send for large bodies of their own countrymen. It was to these adventurers, according to tradition, that the See also:kingdom of Kent owed its origin. The See also:story is in itself by no means improbable, while the See also:dates assigned to the first invasion by various Welsh, Gaulish and English authorities, with one exception all fall within about' a See also:quarter of a century, viz. between the See also:year 428 and the See also:joint reign of Martian and Valentinian III. (450-455). For the subsequent course of the invasion our See also:information is of the most meagre and unsatisfactory See also:character. According to the Anglo-Saxon See also:Chronicle the kingdom of Sussex was founded by a certain See also:Ella or IElle, who landed in 477, while Wessex owed its origin to See also:Cerdic, who arrived some eighteen years later. No value, however, can be attached• to these dates; indeed, in the latter See also:case the story itself is open to suspicion on several grounds (see WESSEX). For the movements which led to the See also:foundation of the more northern kingdoms we have no See also:evidence See also:worth See also:consideration, nor do we know even approximately when they took See also:place. But the view that the invasion was effected through-out by small bodies of adventurers acting independently of one another, and that each of the various kingdoms owes its origin to a See also:separate enterprise, has little See also:probability in its favour. See also:Bede states that the invaders belonged to three different nations, Kent and See also:southern See also:Hampshire being occupied by See also:Jutes (q.v.), while See also:Essex, Sussex and Wessex were founded by the Saxons, and' the remaining kingdoms by the See also:Angli (q.v.). The peculiarities of social organization in Kent certainly tend to show that this kingdom had a different origin from the See also:rest; but the evidence for the distinction between the Saxons and the Angli is of a much less satisfactory character (see ANGLO-SAXONS). 590 The royal See also:family of Essex may really have been of Saxon origin (see EssEx), but on the other See also:hand the West Saxon royal family claimed to be of the same stock as that of See also:Bernicia, and their connexions in the past seem to have lain with the Angli. We need not doubt that the first invasion was followed by a See also:long See also:period of warfare between the natives and the invaders, in which the latter gradually strengthened their hold on the conquered territories. It is very probable that by the end of the 5th century all the eastern See also:part of Britain, at least as far as the Humber, was in their hands. The first important check was received at the See also:siege of " See also:Mons Badonicus " in the year 517 (See also:Ann. Cambr.), or perhaps rather some fifteen or twenty years earlier. According to Gildas this event was followed by a period of See also:peace for at least See also:forty-four years. In the latter part of the 6th century, however, the territories occupied by the invaders seem to have been greatly extended. In the south the West Saxons are said to have conquered first See also:Wiltshire and then all the upper part of the See also:Thames valley, together with the See also:country beyond as far as the Severn. The northern frontier also seems to have been pushed considerably farther forward, perhaps into what is now Scotland, and it is very probable that the See also:basin of the See also:Trent, together with the central districts between the Trent and the Thames, was conquered about the same See also:time, though of this we have no See also:record. Again, the 'destruction of Chester about 615 was soon followed by the overthrow of the British kingdom of Elmet in south-west See also:Yorkshire, and the occupation of See also:Shropshire and the Lothians took place perhaps about the same period, that of See also:Herefordshire probably somewhat later. In the south, See also:Somerset is said to have been conquered by the West Saxons shortly after the See also:middle of the 7th century. See also:Dorset had probably been acquired by them before this time, while part of See also:Devon seems to have come into their hands soon afterwards. The See also:area thus conquered was occupied by a number of separate kingdoms, each with a royal family of its own. The districts north of the Humber contained two kingdoms, Bernicia (q.v.) and See also:Deira (q.v.), which were eventually See also:united in See also:Northumbria. South of the Humber, See also:Lindsey seems to have had a See also:dynasty of its own, though in See also:historical times it was apparently always subject to the See also:kings of Northumbria or See also:Mercia. The upper basin of the Trent formed the See also:nucleus of the kingdom of Mercia (q.v.), while farther down the east coast was the kingdom of East Anglia (q.v.). Between these two lay a territory called Middle Anglia, which is sometimes described as a kingdom, though we do not know whether it ever had a separate dynasty. Essex, Kent and Sussex (see articles on these kingdoms) preserve the names of ancient kingdoms, while the old See also:diocese of See also:Worcester grew out of the kingdom of the See also:Hwicce (q.v.), with which it probably coincided in area. The south of England, between Sussex and " West Wales " (eventually reduced to See also:Cornwall), was occupied by Wessex, which originally also possessed some territory to the north of the Thames. Lastly, even the Isle of See also:Wight appears to have had a dynasty of its own. But it must not be supposed that all these kingdoms were always, or even normally, See also:independent. When history begins, IEthelberht, king of Kent, was supreme over all the kings south of the Humber. He was followed by the East Anglian king Raedwald, and the latter again by a See also:series of Northumbrian kings with an even wider supremacy. Before eEthelberht a similar position had been held by the West Saxon king See also:Ceawlin, and at a much earlier period, according to tradition, by Ella or iElle, the first king of Sussex. The nature of this supremacy has been much discussed, but the true explanation seems to be furnished by that principle of See also:personal See also:allegiance which formed such an important element in Anglo-Saxon society. 2. Government.—Internally the various states seem to have been organized on very similar lines. In every case we find kingly government from the time of our earliest records, and there is no doubt that the institution goes back to a date anterior to the invasion of Britain (see See also:OFFA; See also:WERMUND). The royal See also:title, however, was frequently See also:borne by more than one See also:person. Sometimes we find one supreme king together with a number of under-kings (subreguli) ; sometimes again, especially in the smaller kingdoms, Essex, Sussex and Hwicce, we meet with twoor more kings, generally See also:brothers, reigning together apparently on equal terms. During the greater part of the 8th century Kent seems to have been divided into two kingdoms; but as a See also:rule such divisions did not last beyond the lifetime of the kings between whom the arrangement had been made. The kings were, with very rare exceptions, chosen from one particular family in each See also:state, the ancestry of which was traced back not only to the founder of the kingdom but also, in a remoter degree, to a See also:god. The members of such families were entitled to special wergilds, apparently six times as great as those of the higher class of nobles (see below). The only other central authority in the state was the king's See also:council or court (See also:bend, wilan, See also:plebs, concilium). This See also:body consisted partly of See also:young warriors in See also:constant attendance on the king, and partly of See also:senior officials whom he called together from time to time. The terms used for the two classes by Bede are milites (ministri) and comites, for which the Anglo-Saxon version has pegnas and gesi 5as respectively. Both classes alike consisted in part of members of the royal family. But they were by no means confined to such persons or even to See also:born subjects of the king. Indeed, we are told that popular kings like Oswine attracted young nobles to their service from all quarters. The functions of the council have been much discussed, and it has been claimed that they had the right of electing and deposing kings. This view, however, seems to involve the existence of a greater feeling for constitutionalism than is warranted by the information at our disposal. The incidents which have been brought forward as evidence to this effect may with at least equal probability be interpreted as cases of profession or transference of personal allegiance. In other respects the functions of the council seem to have been of a deliberative character. It was certainly customary for the king to seek their See also:advice and moral support on important questions, but there is nothing to show that he had to abide by the See also:opinion of the See also:majority. For administrative purposes each of the various kingdoms was divided into a number of districts under the See also:charge of royal See also:reeves (cyninges gerefa, praefectus, praepositus). These officials seem to have been located in royal villages (cyninges See also:tun, See also:villa regalis) or fortresses (cyninges See also:burg, urbs regis), which served as centres and See also:meeting-places (markets, &c.) for the inhabitants of the See also:district, and to which their dues, both in payments and services had to be rendered. The usual See also:size of such districts in early times seems to have been 300, 600 or 1200 hides). In addition to these districts we find mention also of much larger divisions containing 2000, 3000, 5000 or 7000 hides. To this See also:category belong the shires of Wessex (Hampshire, Wiltshire, See also:Berkshire, &c.), each of which had an See also:earl (aldermen, princeps, See also:dux) of its own, at all events from the 8th century onwards. Many, if not all, of these persons were members of the royal family, and it is not unlikely that they originally See also:bore the kingly title. At all events they are sometimes described as subreguli. 3. Social Organization.—The officials mentioned above, whether of royal See also:birth or not, were probably See also:drawn from the king's personal See also:retinue. In Anglo-Saxon society, as in that of all Teutonic nations in early times, the two most important principles were those of kinship and personal allegiance. 'If a man suffered injury it was to his relatives and his See also:lord, rather than to any public See also:official, that he applied first for protection and redress. If he was slain, a fixed sum (See also:wergild), varying according to his station, had to be paid to his relatives, while a further but smaller sum (manbot) was due to his lord. These principles applied to all classes of society alike, and though strife within the family was by no means unknown, at all events in royal families, the actual slaying of a kinsman was regarded as the most heinous of all offences. Much the same feeling applied to the slaying of a lord=an offence for which no See also:compensation could be rendered. How far the armed followers of a lord were entitled to compensation when the latter was slain 1 The hide (hid, hiwisc, familia, tributarius, cassatus, mavens, &c.) was in later times a measure of See also:land, usually 12o acres. In early times, however, it seems to have meant (1) See also:household, (2) normal amount of land appertaining to a household. is uncertain, but in the case of a king they received an amount equal to the wergild. Another important development of the principle of allegiance is to be found in the See also:custom of heriots. In later times this custom amounted practically to a See also:system of See also:death-duties, payable in horses and arms or in See also:money to the lord of the deceased. There can be little doubt, however, that originally it was a restoration to the lord of,the military outfit with which he had presented his man when he entered his service. The institution of thegnhood, i.e. membership of the comitatus or retinue of a See also:prince, offered the only opening by which public life could be entered. Hence it was probably adopted almost universally by young men of the highest classes. The See also:thegn was expected to fight for his lord, and generally to place his services at his disposal in both See also:war and peace. The lord, on the other hand, had to keep his thegns and See also:reward them from time to time with arms and treasure. When they were of an age to marry he was expected to provide them with the means of doing so. If the lord was a king this See also:provision took the See also:form of a See also: 1200, 60o and 200 shillings respectively. It is probable that similar classes existed also in Northumbria, though not under the same names. Besides these terms there were others which were probably in use every-where, viz. gesi75cund for the two higher classes and ceorlisc for the lowest. Indeed, we find these terms even in Kent, though the social system of that kingdom seems to have been of an essentially different character. Here the wergild of the ceorlisc class amounted to zoo shillings, each containing twenty See also:silver coins (sceattas), as against 200 shillings of four (in Wessex five) silver coins, and was thus very much greater than the latter. Again, there was apparently but one gesi5cund class in Kent, with a wergild of 300 shillings, while, on the other hand, below the ceorlisc class we find three classes of persons described as laetas, who corresponded in all probability to the liti or freedmen of the See also:continental See also:laws, and who possessed wergilds of 8o, 6o and 40 shillings respectively. To these we find nothing analogous in the other kingdoms, though the poorer classes of Welsh freemen had wergilds varying from 120 to 6o shillings. It should be added that the See also:differential treatment of the various classes was by no means confined to the case of wergilds. We find it also in the compensations to which they were entitled for various injuries, in the fines to which they were liable, and in the value attached to their oaths. Generally, though not always, the See also:pro-portions observed were the same as in the wergilds. The nature of the distinction between the gesibcund and ceorlisc classes is nowhere clearly explained; but it was certainly hereditary and probably of considerable antiquity. In general we may perhaps define them as nobles and See also:commons, though in view of the numbers of the higher classes it would probably be more correct to speak of gentry and peasants. The distinction between the twelfhynde and sixhynde classes was also in part at least hereditary, but there is See also:good See also:reason for believing that it arose out of the See also:possession of land. The former consisted of persons who possessed, whether as individuals or families, at least five hides of land—which practically means a village—while the latter were landless, i.e. probably without this amount of land. Within the ceorlisc class we find similar subdivisions, though they were not marked by a difference in wergild. The gafolgelda or tributarius (See also:tribute-payer) seems to have been a ceorl who possessed at least a hide, while the gebur was without land of his own, and received his outfit as a See also:loan from his lord. 4. Payments and Services.—We have already had occasion to refer to the dues which were rendered by different classes of the See also:population, and which the reeves in royal villages had to collect and superintend. The payments seem to have varied ireatly according to the class from which they were due. Thoserendered by landowners seem to have been known as feorm or fostor, and consisted of a fixed quantity of articles paid in See also:kind. In See also:Ine's Laws (cap. 70) we find a See also:list of payments specified for a unit of ten hides, perhaps the normal holding of a twelfhynde man —though on the other hand it may be nothing more than a See also:mere fiscal unit in an aggregate of estates. The list consists of oxen, See also:sheep, geese, hens, See also:honey, See also:ale, loaves, See also:cheese, See also:butter, See also:fodder, See also:salmon and eels. Very similar specifications are found elsewhere. The payments rendered by the gafolgelda (tributarius) were known as gafol (tributum), as his name implies. In Ine's Laws we hear only of the hwitel or See also: 5. Warfare.—All classes are said to have been liable to the duty of military service. Hence, since the ceorls doubtless formed the bulk of the population, it has been thought that the Anglo-Saxon armies of early times were essentially See also:peasant forces. The evidence at our disposal, however, gives little See also:justification for such a view. The regulation that every five or six hides should See also:supply a See also:warrior was not a product of the Danish invasions, as is sometimes stated, but goes back at least to the beginning of the 9th century. Had the fighting material been drawn from the ceorlisc class a warrior would surely have been required from each hide, but for military service no such regulation is found. Again, the fird (See also:fyrd) was composed of mounted warriors during the 9th century, though apparently they fought on See also:foot, and there are indications that such was the case also in the 7th century. No doubt ceorls took part in military expeditions, but they may have gone as attendants and camp-followers rather than as warriors, their chief business being to make stockades and bridges, and especially to carry provisions. The serious fighting, however, was probably left to the gesibcund classes, who possessed horses and more or less effective weapons. Indeed, there is good reason for regarding these classes as essentially military. The chief weapons were the See also:sword and See also:spear. The former were two-edged and on the See also:average about 3 ft. long. The hilts were often elaborately ornamented and sometimes these weapons were of considerable value. No definite See also:line can be drawn between the spear proper and the See also:javelin. The spear-heads which have been found in See also:graves vary considerably in both form and size. They were fitted on to the See also:shaft by a socket which was open on one See also:side. Other weapons appear to have been quite rare. Bows and arrows were certainly in use for sporting purposes, but there is no reason for believing that they were much used in warfare before the Danish invasions. They are very seldom met with in graves. The most See also:common article of defensive See also:armour was the See also:shield, which was small and circular and apparently of quite thin See also:lime-See also:wood, the edge being formed probably by a thin bana of See also:iron. In the centre of the shield, in See also:order to protect the hand which held it, was a strong iron See also:boss, some 7 in. in See also:diameter and projecting about 3 in. It is clear from See also:literary evidence that the See also:helmet (helm) and coat of See also:chain See also:mail (byrne) were also in common use. They are seldom found in graves, however, whether owing to the custom of heriots or to the fact that, on account of their relatively high value, they were frequently handed on from See also:generation to generation as heirlooms. See also:Greaves are not often mentioned. It is worth noting that in later times the See also:heriot of an, " See also:ordinary thegn (medema pegn)—by which is meant apparently not a king's thegn but a man of the twelfhynde class—consisted of his horse with its See also:saddle, &c. and his arms, or two pounds of silver as an See also:equivalent of the whole. The arms required were probably a sword, helmet, coat of mail and one or two spears and See also:shields. There are distinct indications that a similar outfit was fairly common in Ine's time, and that its value was much the same. Orie would scarcely be justified, however, in supposing that it was anything like universal; for the purchasing See also:power of such a sum was at that time considerable, representing as it did about 16–2o oxen or 100-120 sheep. It would hardly be safe to See also:credit men of the sixhynde class in general with more than a horse, spear and shield. 6. See also:Agriculture and See also:Village Life.—There is no doubt that a fairly advanced system of agriculture must have been known to the Anglo-Saxons before they settled in Britain. This is made clear above all by the See also:representation of a plough drawn by two oxen in one of the very ancient See also:rock-carvings at Tegneby in Bohuslan. In Domesday See also:Book the heavy plough with eight oxen seems to be universal, and it can be traced back in Kent to, the beginning of the 9th century. In this kingdom the system of agricultural terminology was based on it. The unit was the sulung (aratrum) or ploughland (from sulk, " plough "), the fourth part of which was the geocled or geoc (jugum), originally a yoke of oxen. An See also:analogy is supplied by the. carucata of the See also:Danelagh, the eighth part of which was the bouata or " ox-land.'' In the loth century the sulung seems to have been identified with the hide, but in earlier times it contained apparently two hides. The hide itself, which was the See also:regular unit in the other kingdoms, usually contained 120 acres in later times, and was divided into four girda (virgatae) or yardlands. But originally it seems to have meant simply the land pertaining to a household, and its area in early times is quite uncertain, though probably far less. For the See also:acre also there was in later times a See also:standard length and breadth, the former being called furhlang (See also:furlong) and reckoned at one-eighth of a mile, while the aecerbraedu or " acre-breadth " (chain) was also a definite measure. We need not doubt, however, that in practice the form of the acre was largely conditioned by the nature of the ground. Originally it is thought to have been the measure of a See also:day's ploughing, in which case the dimensions given above would scarcely be reached. Account must also be taken of the possibility that in early times lighter teams were in general use. If so the normal dimensions of the acre may very well have been quite different. The husbandry was of a co-operative character. In the t zth century it was distinctly unusual for a peasant to possess a whole team of his own, and there is no reason for supposing the case to have been otherwise in early times; for though the peasant might then hold a hide, the hide itself was doubtless smaller and not commensurate in any way with the ploughland. The holdings were probably not compact but consisted of scattered strips in common See also:fields, changed perhaps from year to year, the choice being determined by See also:lot or otherwise. As for the method of cultivation itself there is little or no evidence. Both the " two-course system " and the " three-course system " may have been in use; but on the other hand it is quite possible that in many cases the same ground was not sown more than once in three years. The prevalence of the co-operative principle, it may be observed, was doubtless due in large measure to the fact that the greater part of England, especially towards the east, was settled not in scattered farms or hamlets but in compact villages with the cultivated lands lying See also:round them.
The See also: The cultivation of See also:fruit and vege tables on the other hand was probably almost entirely new. The names are almost all derived from Latin, though most of them seem to have been known soon after the invasion, at all events by the 7th century. From the considerations pointed out above we can hardly doubt that the village possessed a certain amount of corporate life, centred perhaps in an ale-See also:house where its affairs were discussed by the inhabitants. There is no evidence, however; which would justify us in crediting such gatherings with any substantial degree of See also:local authority. So far as the limited information at our disposal enables us to form an opinion, the responsibility both for the See also:internal peace of the village, and for its obligations to the outside See also:world, seems to have lain with the lord or his steward (gerefa, villicus) from the beginning. A quite opposite view has, it is true, found favour with many scholars, viz. that the villages were orginally settlements of See also:free kindreds, and that the lord's authority was superimposed on them at a later date. This view is based mainly on the numerous place-names ending in -See also:ing, -See also:ingham, -ington, &c., in which the syllable -ing is thought to refer to kindreds of cultivators. It is more probable, however, that these names are derived from persons of the twelfhynde class to whom the land had been granted. In many cases in-See also:deed there is good reason for doubting whether the name is a patronymic at all. The question how far the villages were really new settlements is difficult to See also:answer, for the terminations -See also:ham, -ton, &c. cannot be regarded as conclusive evidence. Thus according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ann. 571) Bensington and Eynsham were formerly British villages. Even if the first part of Egonesham is English—which is by no means certain—it is hardly sufficient reason for discrediting this statement, for Canterbury (Cantwaraburg) and See also:Rochester (Hrofes ceaster) were without doubt Roman places in spite of their English names. On the whole it seems likely that the cultivation of the land was not generally interrupted for more than a very few years; hence the convenience of utilizing existing sites of villages would be obvious, even if the buildings themselves had been burnt. 7. Towns.—Gildas states that in the time of the Romans Britain contained twenty-eight cities (civitales), besides a number of fortresses (castella). Most of these were situated within the territories eventually occupied by the invaders, and reappear as towns in later times. Their history in the intervening period. however, is wrapped in obscurity. Chester appears to have been deserted for three centuries after its destruction early in the 7th century, and in most of the other cases there are features observable in the situation and See also:plan of the medieval See also:town which suggest that its occupation had not been continuous. Yet London and Canterbury must have recovered a certain amount of importance quite early, at all events within two centuries after the invasion, and the same is probably true of York, .593 probably in slaves. English slaves were to be obtained in Rome even before the end of the 6th century, as appears from the well-known story of See also:Gregory the Great. Since the standard See also:price of slaves on the See also:continent was in general three or four times as great as it was in England, the See also:trade must have been very profitable. After the See also:adoption of Christianity it was gradually prohibited by the laws. The nature of the imports during the See also:heathen period may be learned chiefly from the graves, which contain many brooches and other ornaments of continental origin, and also a certain number of silver, bronze and See also:glass vessels. With the introduction of Christianity the ecclesiastical connexion between England and the continent without doubt brought about a large increase in the imports of See also:secular as well as religious See also:objects, and the frequency of See also:pilgrim-ages by. persons of high See also:rank must have had the same effect. The use of See also:silk (seoluc) and the adoption of the mancus (see below) point to communication, See also:direct or indirect, with more distant countries. In the 8th century we hear frequently of tolls on See also:merchant See also:ships at various ports, especially London. r s. Coinage.—The earliest coins which can be identified with certainty are some silver pieces which See also:bear in Runic letters the name of the Mercian king/See also:Ethelred (675-704). There are others, however, of the same type and standard (about 21 grains) which may be attributed with probability to his See also:father See also:Penda (d. 655)• But it is clear from the laws of A thelberht that a regular silver coinage was in use at least See also:half a century before this time, and it is not unlikely that many unidentified coins may go back to the 6th century. These are fairly numerous, and are either without See also:inscriptions or, if they do bear letters at all, they seem to be mere corruptions of Roman legends. Their designs are derived from Roman or Frankish coins, especially the former, and their weight varies from about so to 21 grains, though the very See also:light coins are rare. See also:Anonymous See also:gold coins, resembling Frankish trientes in type and standard (21 grains), are also fairly common, though they must have passed out of use very early, as the laws give no hint of their existence. Larger gold • coins (solidi) are very rare. In the early laws the money actually in use appears to have been entirely silver. In Off a's time a new gold See also:coin, the mancus, resembling in standard the Roman solidus (about 70 grains), was introduced from See also:Mahommedan countries. The See also:oldest extant specimen bears a faithfully copied Arabic inscription. In the same reign the silver coins underwent a considerable change in type, being made larger and thinner, while from this time onwards they always bore the name of the king (or See also:queen or See also:archbishop) for whom they were issued. The See also:design and See also:execution also became remarkably good. Their weight was at first unaffected, but probably towards the See also:close of Offa's reign it was raised to about 23 grains, at which standard it seems to have remained, nominally at least, until the time of See also:Alfred. It is to be observed that with the exception of See also:Burgred's coins and a few anonymous pieces the silver was never adulterated. No bronze coins were current except in Northumbria, where they were extremely common in the 9th century. Originally stilling (" See also:shilling ") and sceatt seem to have been the terms for gold and silver coins respectively. By the time of Ine, however, pending, See also:pen(n)ing (" See also:penny "), had already come into use for the latter, while, owing to the temporary disappearance of a gold coinage, stilling had come to denote a mere unit of account. It was, however, a variable unit, for the Kentish shilling contained twenty sceattas (pence), while the Mercian contained only four. The West Saxon shilling seems originally to have been identical with the Mercian, but later it contained five pence. Large payments were generally made by weight, 240-250 pence being reckoned to the See also:pound, perhaps from the 7th century onwards. The mancus was equated with See also:thirty-pence, probably from the time of its introduction. This means that the value of gold relatively to silver was so: s from theend of Offa's reign. There is reason, however, for thinking that in earlier times it was as lowas 6: s, or even 5: s. In Northumbria a totally different monetary system prevailed, the unit being the. tryms, which contained three sceattas or pence. As to the value both by land and by See also:sea. At first the chief export trade was of the bronze coins we are without information Lincoln and a few other places. The term applied to both the cities and the fortresses of the Romans was ceaster (Lat. castra), less frequently the English word burg. There is little or no evidence for the existence of towns other than Roman in early times, for the word urbs is merely a See also:translation of burg, which was used for any fortified dwelling-place, and it is improbable that anything which could properly be called a town was known to the invaders before their arrival in Britain. The Danish settlements at the end of the 9th century and the defensive system initiated by King Alfred gave birth to a new series of fortified towns, from which the boroughs of the middle ages are mainly descended. 8. Houses.—Owing to the fact that houses were built entirely of perishable materials, wood and wattle, we are necessarily dependent almost wholly upon literary evidence for knowledge of this subject. Stone seems to have been used first for churches, but this was not before the 7th century, and we are told that at first masons were imported from Gaul. Indeed wood was used for many churches, as well as for most secular buildings, until a much later period. The walls were formed either of stout planks laid together vertically or horizontally, or else of posts at a See also:short distance from one another, the interstices being filled up with wattlework daubed with See also:clay. It is not unlikely that the houses of wealthy persons were distinguished by a good See also:deal of ornamentation in See also:carving and See also:painting. The roof was high-pitched and covered with See also:straw, See also:hay, reeds or tiles. The regular form of the buildings was rectangular, the gable sides probably being shorter than the others. There is little evidence for partitions inside, and in wealthy establishments the place of rooms seems to have been supplied by separate buildings within the same enclosure. The windows must have been mere openings in the walls or roof, for glass was not used for this purpose before the latter part of the 7th century. Stoves were known, but most commonly See also:heat was obtained from an open See also:fire in the centre of the See also:building. Of the various buildings in a wealthy See also:establishment the chief were the See also: 9. Clothes.—The chief material for clothing was at first no doubt See also:wool, though See also:linen must also have been used and later became fairly common. The chief garments were the coat (See also:roc), the See also:trousers (brec), and the cloak, for which there seem to have been a number of names (lola, hacele, sciccing, See also:pad, hwitel). To these we may add the See also:hat (haet), See also:belt (gyrdel), stockings (hosa), shoes (scoh, gescy, rifeling) and gloves (glof). The crusene was a See also:fur coat, while the serc or smoc seems to have been an under-garment and probably sleeveless. The whole attire was of See also:national origin and had probably been in use long before the invasion of Britain. In the great See also:bog-See also:deposit at Thorsbjaerg in See also:Angel, which dates from about the 4th century, there were found a coat with long sleeves, in a See also:fair state of preservation, a pair of long trousers with remains of socks attached, several shoes and portions of square cloaks, one of which had obviously been dyed See also:green. The See also:dress of the upper classes must have been of a somewhat gorgeous character, especially when account is taken of the brooches and other ornaments which they wore. It is worth noting that according to Jordanes the Swedes in the 6th century were splendidly dressed. so. 7'rade.—The few notices of this subject which occur in the early laws seem to refer primarily to cattle-dealing. But there can be no doubt that a considerable import and export trade with the continent had sprung up quite early. In Bede's time, if not before, London was resorted to by many merchants The purchasing power of money was very great. The sheep was valued at a shilling in both Wessex and Mercia, from early times till the 11th century. One pound was the normal price of a slave and half a pound that of. a horse. The price of a See also:pig was twice, and that of an ox six times as great as that of a sheep. Regarding the prices of commodities other than live-stock we have little definite information, though an approximate estimate may be made of the value of arms. It is worth noticing that we often hear of payments in gold and silver vessels in place of money. In the former case the mancus was the usual unit of calculation. 12. Ornaments.—Of these the most interesting are the brooches which were worn by both sexes and of which large numbers have been found in heathen cemeteries. They may be classed under eight leading types: (I) circular or See also:ring-shaped, (2) cruciform, (3) square-headed, (4) radiated, (5) S-shaped, (6) See also:bird-shaped, (7) disk-shaped, (8) cupelliform or saucer-shaped. Of these Nos. 5 and 6 appear to be of continental origin, .and this is probably the case also with No. 4 and in part with No. 7. But the last-mentioned type varies greatly, from See also:rude and almost See also:plain disks of bronze to magnificent gold specimens studded with gems. No. 8 is believed to be peculiar to England, and occurs chiefly in the southern Midlands, specimens being usually found in pairs. The interiors are gilt, often furnished with detachable plates and sometimes set with brilliants.. The remaining types were probably brought over by the Anglo-Saxons at the time of the invasion. Nos. I and 3 are widespread outside England, but No. 2, though common in Scandinavian countries, is hardly to be met with south of the See also:Elbe. It is worth noting that a number of specimens were found in the See also:cremation See also:cemetery at Borgstedterfeld near See also:Rendsburg. In England it occurs chiefly in the more northern counties. Nos. 2 and 3 vary greatly in size, from 22 to 7 in. or more. The smaller specimens are quite plain, but the larger ones are gilt and generally of a highly ornamental character. In later times we hear of brooches worth as much as six mancusas, i.e. equivalent to six oxen. Among other ornaments we may mention hairpins, rings and See also:ear-rings, and especially buckles which are often of elaborate workmanship. Bracelets and necklets are not very common, a fact which is rather surprising, as in early times, before the issuing of a coinage, these articles (beagas) took the place of money to a large extent. The glass vessels are finely made and of somewhat striking See also:appearance, though they closely resemble contemporary continental types. Since the art of glass-working was unknown, according to Bede, until nearly the end of the 7th century, it is probable that these were all of continental or Roman-British origin. 13. Amusements.—It is clear from the frequent references to dogs and hawks in the charters that See also:hunting and See also:falconry were keenly pursued by the kings and their retinues. See also:Games, whether indoor or outdoor, are much less frequently mentioned, but there is no doubt that the use of See also:dice (taefl) was widespread. At court much time was given to poetic recitation, often accompanied by See also:music, and accomplished poets received liberal rewards. The chief musical instrument was the See also:harp (hearpe), which is often mentioned. Less frequently we hear of the See also:flute (See also:pipe) and later also of the See also:fiddle (fidele). Trumpets (See also:horn, swegelhorn, byme) appear to have been used chiefly as signals. 14. See also:Writing.—The Runic See also:alphabet seems to have been the only form of writing known to the Anglo-Saxons before the invasion of Britain, and indeed until the adoption of Christianity. In its earliest form, as it appears in inscriptions on various articles found in See also:Schleswig and in Scandinavian countries, it consisted of twenty-four letters, all of which occur in abecedaria in England. In actual use, however, two letters soon became obsolete, but a number of others were added from time to time, some of which are found also on the continent, while others are peculiar to certain parts of England. Originally the Runic alphabet seems to have been used for writing on wooden boards, though none of these have survived. The inscriptions which have come down to us are engraved partly on memorial stones,which are not uncommon in the north of England, and partly on various See also:metal objects, ranging from swords to brooches. The adoption of Christianity brought about the introduction of the Roman alphabet; but the older form of writing did not immediately pass out of use, for almost all the inscriptions which we possess date from the 7th or following centuries. Coins with Runic legends were issued at least until the middle of the 8th century, and some of the memorial stones date probably even from the 9th. The most important of the latter are the See also:column at Bewcastle, Cumberland, believed to commemorate Alhfrith, the son of See also:Oswio, who died about 67o, and the See also:cross at Ruthwell, See also:Dumfriesshire, which is probably about a century later. The Roman alphabet was very soon applied to the purpose of writing the native language, e.g. in the publication of the laws of IEthelberht. Yet the type of character in which even the earliest surviving See also:MSS. are written is believed to be of Celtic origin. Most probably it was introduced by the Irish missionaries who evangelized the north of England, though Welsh See also:influence is scarcely impossible. Eventually this alphabet was enlarged (probably before the end of the 7th century) by the inclusion of two Runic letters for th and w.
15. See also:Marriage.-This is perhaps the subject on which our information is most inadequate. It is evident that the relationships which prohibited marriage were different from those recognized by the See also: Funeral See also:Rites.-Both inhumation and cremation were practised in heathen times. The former seems to have prevailed everywhere; the latter, however, was much more common in the more northern counties than in the south, though cases are fairly numerous throughout the valley of the Thames. In See also:Beowulf cremation is represented as the prevailing custom. There is no evidence that it was still practised when the Roman and Celtic missionaries arrived, but it is worth noting that according to the tradition given in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, See also:Oxfordshire, where the custom seems to have been fairly common, was not conquered before the latter part of the 6th century. The burnt remains were generally, if not always, enclosed in urns and then buried. The urns themselves are of clay, somewhat badly baked, and bear geometrical patterns applied with a See also:punch. They vary considerably in size (from 4 to I2 in. or more in diameter) and closely resemble those found in northern See also:Germany. Inhumation graves are sometimes richly furnished. The See also:skeleton is laid out at full length, generally with the See also:head towards the west or north, a spear atone side and a sword and shield obliquely across the middle. Valuable brooches and other ornaments are often found. In many other cases, however, the See also:grave contained nothing except a small See also:knife and a See also:simple See also:brooch or a few beads. Usually both classes of graves See also:lie below the natural See also:surface of the ground without any perceptible trace of a See also:barrow. 17. See also:Religion.—Here again the information at our disposal is very limited. There can be little doubt that the heathen Angli worshipped certain gods, among them Ti (Tig), See also:Woden, Thunor and a goddess See also:Frigg, from whom the names Tuesday, Wednesday, See also:Thursday and See also:Friday are derived. Ti was probably the same god of whom early Roman writers speak See also:tinder the name See also:Mars (see Tn), while Thunor was doubtless the See also:thunder-god (see Tema.). From Woden (q.v.) most of the royal families traced their descent. Seaxneat, the ancestor of the East Saxon dynasty, was also in all probability a god (see EssEx, KINGDOM OF). Of anthropomorphic representations of the gods we have no clear evidence, though we do hear of shrines in sacred enclosures, at which sacrifices were offered. It is clear also that there were persons specially set apart for the priesthood, who were not allowed to bear arms or to ride except on mares. Notices of sacred trees and groves, springs, stones, &c., are much more frequent than those referring to the gods. We hear also a good deal of witches and See also:valkyries, and of charms and magic; as an instance we may cite the fact that certain (Runic) letters were credited, as in the North, with the power of loosening bonds. It is probable also that the belief in the spirit world and in a future life was of a somewhat similar kind to what we find in Scandinavian'religion. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, §6.) The chief See also:primary authorities are Gildas, De Excidio Britanniae, and See also:Nennius, Historia Britonum (ed. See also:San-Marte, See also:Berlin, 1844) ; Th. Mommsen in Mon. Germ. Hist., Auct. Antiquiss., torn. xiii. (Berlin, 1898) ; Bede, Hist. Eccl. (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896) ; the Saxon Chronicle (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1892–1899); and the Anglo-Saxon Laws (ed. F. See also:Liebermann, See also:Halle, 1903), and Charters (W. de G. See also:Birch, Cartidarium Saxonicum, London, 1885–1893). Modern authorities: Sh. See also:Turner, History of the Anglo-Saxons (London, 1799-1805; 7th ed., 1852); Sir F. See also:Palgrave, Rise and Progress of the English See also:Commonwealth (London, 1831-1832) ; J. M. Kemble, The Saxons in England (London, 1849; 2nd ed., 1876); K. See also:Maurer, Kritische Uberschau d. deutschen Gesetzgebung u. Rechtswissenschaft, vols. i.-iii. (See also:Munich, 1853-1855); J. M. See also:Lappenberg, Geschichte von England (See also:Hamburg, 1834) ; History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings (London, 1845; 2nd ed., 1881); J. R. Green, The Making of England (London, 1881); T. See also:Hodgkin, History of England from the Earliest Times to the See also:Norman Conquest (vol. i. of The See also:Political History of England) (London, 1906); F. Seebohm, The English Village Community (London, 1883) ; A. Meitzen, Siedelung and Agrarwesen d. Westgermanen, u. Ostgermanen, &c. (Berlin, 1895) ; Sir F.Pollockand F.W. See also:Maitland, History of EnglishLaw(See also:Cambridge, 1895; and ed., 1898); F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond (Cambridge, 1897) ; F. Seebohm, Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon See also:Law (London, 1903) ; P. Vinogradoff, The Growth of the Manor (London, 1905) ; H. M. See also:Chadwick, Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions (See also:Cam-See also:bridge, 1905) ; The Origin of the English Nation (ib., 1907) ; M. See also:Heyne, Uber See also:die Lage and Construction der Halle Heorot (See also:Paderborn, 1864); R. Henning, Das deutsche Haas (Quellen ii. Forschungen, 47) (See also:Strassburg, 1882) ; M. Heyne, Deutsche Hausaltertiimer, i., ii., M. (See also:Leipzig, 1900–1903) ; G. See also:Baldwin See also: (London, 1887) ; C. Roach Smith, Collectanea See also:Antigua (London, 1848–1868) ; R. C. See also:Neville, Saxon See also:Obsequies (London, 1852) ; J. Y. See also:Akerman, Remains of See also:Pagan Saxondom (London, 1855) ; See also:Baron J. de Baye, Industrie anglo-saxonne (See also:Paris, 1889) ; The See also:Industrial Arts of the Anglo-Saxons (London, 1893) ; G. See also:Stephens, The Old Northern Runic Monuments (London and See also:Copenhagen, 1866–1901) ; W. Vietor, Die northumbrischen Runensteine (See also:Marburg, 1895). Reference must also be made to the articles on Anglo-Saxon antiquities in the Victoria County Histories, and to various papers in Archaeologia, the Archaeological See also:Journal, the Journal of the British Archaeological Society, the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries, the Associated Architectural See also:Societies' Reports, and other antiquarian See also:journals. (H. M. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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