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WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
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See also:WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES . Wool is a modified See also:form of See also:hair, distinguished by its slender, soft and wavy or See also:curly structure, and, as seen under the micro-See also:scope, by its highly imbricated or serrated See also:surface. At what point an See also:animal fibre ceases to be hair and becomes wool it is impossible to determine, because the one by imperceptible gradations merges into the other, so that a continuous See also:chain can be formed from the finest and softest See also:merino to the rigid bristles of the See also:wild See also:boar. Thus the See also:fine soft wool of the Australian merino merges into the See also:cross-bred of New See also:Zealand; the cross-bred of New Zealand merges into the See also:long See also:English and lustre wool, which in turn merges into See also:alpaca and See also:mohair-materials with clearly marked but undeveloped See also:scale structure. Again, such animals as the See also:camel and the Cashmere See also:goat yield See also:fibres, which it would perhaps be difficult to class rigidly as either wool or hair. • Wool is one of the most important of the textile fibres. Owing to the ease with which it may be spun into See also:thread, and the com- fort derived from clothing made of wool, it would naturally be one of the first textiles used by mankind for clothing. See also:Ancient records prove the high antiquity of wool textures and the See also:early importance of the See also:sheep. The different kinds of wool and the See also:cloth made from them in antiquity are described by See also:Pliny and referred to by other writers, and among the arts which the See also:British Isles owe to the See also:Romans not the least important is the See also:spinning and See also:weaving of wool. The sheep certainly was a domestic animal in See also:Britain long before the See also:period of the See also:Roman occupation; and it is probable that some use was made of sheep skins and of wool. But the Romans established a wool factory whence the occupying See also:army was supplied with cloth- See also:ing, and the value of the manufacture was soon recognized by the Britons, of Whom See also:Tacitus remarks, " Inde etiam habitus nostri honor et frequens toga " (Agric. c. 21). The product of the
See also:Winchester looms soon established a reputation abroad, it being
remarked that " the wool of Britain is often spun so fine that it is
in a manner comparable to the spider's thread." This reputation
was maintained throughout the See also:middle ages, and the fibre was
in See also:great demand in the See also:Low Countries and other See also:continental
centres. There are many allusions to woollen manufactures in
See also:England in early times; but the native See also:industry could not See also:rival
the products of the See also:continent, although the troubles in various
See also:industrial centres, from See also:time to time, caused skilled workers in
wool to seek an See also:asylum in England. In the time of See also: In 166o the See also:absolute See also:prohibition of the export of wool was again decreed, and it was not till 1825 that this law was finally repealed. The results of the prohibitory law were exceedingly detrimental; the See also:production of wool far exceeded the See also:consumption; the See also:price of the raw material See also:fell; wool-" See also:running " or smuggling became an organized See also:traffic; and the whole industry became disorganized. Extraordinary expedients were resorted to for stimulating the demand for woollen manufactures, among which was an See also:act passed in the reign of See also: In 1825 the importation of colonial wool became free, the duty leviable having been for several previous years as high as 6d. per lb, and in 1844 the duty was finally remitted on See also:foreign wool also.
Sheep were introduced at See also:Jamestown in See also:Virginia in 'See also:floe, and in 1633 the animals were first brought to See also:Boston. Ten years later a fulling See also: In most years Australia has produced the Sout woolh/n greater bulk, but just occasionally S. America has come America out See also:top and is likely to do so more frequently in the future owing to the remarkable developments there taking See also:place. The See also:history of the introduction of the merino sheep into S. America may be briefly summed up as follows. In 1842 See also:Henri Solanet, a Frenchman, began to shear the comparatively few sheep See also:round Buenos Aires. His example was soon followed by Edouardo Olivera and Jose Platter. The See also:idea almost at once came to these pioneers of importing well-bred rams, and as S. Afherica is essentially a Latin country it was but natural that the See also:French flocks of See also:Rambouillet should be first See also:drawn upon. With the development of the See also:meat trade—just as in the See also:case :of Australia and New Zealand—a larger See also:carcass was then sought after. This led to the introduction of the See also:Lincoln See also:ram and the development of cross-bred flocks about the See also:year 1885. Perhaps this cross was favoured owing to the skill of the See also:Bradford spinners, who made excellent use of the cross-bred wool produced. Flocks of sheep were first introduced into the Falkland Islands in 1867. The pasturage here being limited, the flocks have probably attained their limit, but from the Falkland Islands flocks have been passed on to Punta Arenas, where there is practically unlimited pasturage. The See also:chief centres from which wool from S. America comes to Europe are Buenos Aires, which exports chiefly long and cross-bred wools, See also:Montevideo, which exports chiefly merino wools, and the Falkland Islands and Punta Arenas, which export mostly wools of the finer type. The industry is largely in the hands of Englishmen. Unfortunately, however, the British manufacturer early took a dislike to the Buenos Aires, &c., wools, and consequently these wools go largely to the continent of Europe. To-day they by no means merit their previous See also:bad name, and the Bradford comber and spinner are endeavouring to make up for lost opportunities. See also:Prior to the introduction of the merino sheep into Australia it had been introduced into S. See also:Africa by the Dutch. There the See also:climate was not so helpful as was that of Australia. The newly acclimatized sheep appears to have See also:cast its Sowouth ol in wool at about the fifth See also:generation and to have generally Africa. deteriorated, necessitating the reintroduction of fresh blood form Europe. In this manner have been developed the Cape flocks and the considerable Cape wool trade—largely centred at See also:Port Elizabeth, See also:East London, Cape See also:Town, Mossel See also:Bay and Port See also:Natal. The country is evidently specially adapted for the rearing of the merino type of sheep, as cross-bred Cape wool is practically unknown. The See also:term See also:snow-See also: It should here be noted that the Australian fine wools were first shipped from Botany Bay, hence the now universal term " botany " for fine wools. The colonists were not to be repressed however, and eventually, through the endeavours of See also:Captain MacArthur, See also:Sir J. See also:Banks, the Rev. See also:Samuel See also:Marsden and others, the merino breed became established on a See also:firm basis, and in a comparatively See also:short time Australian wools were no longer a See also:drug on the See also:market. The See also:evolution was not to stop, however, with the development of merino flocks and the exporting of merino wool. No doubt early in the 19th century the possibilities of raising larger sheep on the better coastal pasturage was naturally suggested. Until about 1885 this tendency was largely repressed owing to the demand for merino as distinct from cross-bred wool. In other words wool was the dominating See also:factor. But with the possibilities and the development of the frozen meat trade from 188o to 1890 this See also:condition was changed, and the tendency to breed a large sheep with a valuable carcass and mediocre wool See also:grew apace. New Zealand was specially adapted for this development; thus New Zealand frozen mutton completely dominated New Zealand wool. In this manner it came about that cross-bred wool supplanted merino wool to a very considerable extent throughout Australasia. This See also:change would have been serious for the wool comber and spinner had not the Bradford combers, spinners and manufacturers put their See also:shoulder to the See also:wheel and developed a world-wide renown for their cross-bred tops, yarns and fabrics. Again the change was not altogether for the bad so far as the Australian sheep was concerned. Sheep-breeding developed into a real See also:science, and remarkable results were obtained with such crosses as Merino-Lincoln, Merino-See also:Leicester, Merino-See also:Shropshire; all probably originating in the first place in the See also:desire to produce a large-bodied early-fattening sheep, but later developing into a strenuous endeavour to develop more useful types of wools. Thus the wool produced from the first cross Merino-Lincoln might be very defective judged from a pure merino stand-point, but by breeding back to the merino practically none of the useful merino characteristics were sacrificed, while length of See also:staple was added and the weight of the fleece perhaps doubled. A somewhat different evolution has taken place in later years with reference to the interior sheep stations. The merino sheep will thrive where a larger sheep would starve, hence its value for the stations where See also:salt-See also:bush dominates all vegetation. But the merino sheep is a " wool " sheep, not a " frozen mutton " sheep, hence all crossing here was carried out with the idea of simply developing the weight of fleece and if possible retaining Large quantities of wool also come from the East and from See also:Russia, while even See also:Iceland contributes its See also:quota. It is interesting to See also:note that, notwithstanding all the developments instanced, Europe still maintains its supremacy as the chief wool-producing continent, though, as the wool is largely manufactured locally, one hears little of See also:European wools. The following See also:statistics give an idea of the development of the colonial and foreign wool trade as gauged by the London wool sales: See also:Bales. Bales. 1814 . 165 187o 673.314 1824 I,62o 1890 1,509,666 1834 . 16,926 1901 I,602,726 1840 44502 1903 . 1,319,365 185o . 158,558 It must not be forgotten, however, that a large quantity of S. See also:American, W. See also:Indian, See also:Russian, &c., wools, along with mohair and alpaca, come through See also:Liverpool, and consequently are not taken into See also:account here. With reference to wools grown in the United See also:Kingdom the truth seems to be that a fine short wool has never been produced. English wool is known the world over as being of a long and lustrous type, which was doubtless that so much in demand in the middle ages. That it was as long and lustrous as the typical Leicester or Lincoln of to-day is doubtful, as the new Leicester breed of sheep was only fully developed by Mr See also:Bakewell after the year 1747, and the latter day Lincoln was even a later development of a similar See also:character. What the exact type of English wool or wools was prior to the 18th century will probably never be decided, but from the closing years of that century there is no difficulty in being fairly precise. As already remarked, the long and lustrous wools are the typical English, being grown in See also:Lincolnshire, See also:Yorkshire, See also:Nottingham-See also:shire, See also:Devonshire, &c., in fact in all those districts where the pasturage is See also:rich and specially fitted for carrying a heavy sheep. It is claimed that the lustre upon the wool is a See also:direct result of the environment, and that to take a Lincoln sheep into See also:Norfolk means the loss of the lustre. This is partially true, but it is perhaps better to take a larger view and remember that the two influencing factors are race and environment: which is the more potent it is impossible to say. Attempts were made in the 18th century to develop a fine wool breed in England, See also:George IV. importing a number of merino sheep from Spain. The See also:discovery was soon made that it was impossible to maintain a breed of pure merinos in Great Britain, but the final outcome was by no means unsatisfactory. By crossing with the indigenous sheep a race of fairly fine woolled sheep was developed, of which the present day representative is the Southdown—a sheep which feeds naturally on the See also:Downs of See also:Sussex, &c., forming a marked contrast to the artificially See also:turnip-fed Lincoln, Leicester, &c., sheep. Following the short, curly Southdown but rather longer, come such as the Sussex, See also:Oxford and See also:Hampshire Down sheep; these are followed by such as the Shropshires and Shropshire crosses, See also:Kent and See also:Romney See also:Marsh, until at last the chain from the Southdown to the Lincoln is completed. Of course there are several British wools not included in this chain. Scotch or See also:black-See also:face wool is long and rough, but well adapted for being spun into See also:carpet yarns. Welsh wool has the peculiarity of early attaining its limit of shrinkage when washed, and hence is specially chosen for flannels. See also:Shetland wool is of a soft nature specially suited for See also:knitting yarns, while Cheviot wool—said to be a cross between merino sheep saved from the See also:wreck of the Great See also:Armada and the native Cheviot sheep—has made the reputation of the Scottish manufacturers for tweeds. See also:North wool—wool from an animal of the Border Leicester and Cheviot breed—See also:Ripon, See also:Wensleydale and Teasdale wools are also specially noted as lustre wools, Ripon and Wensleydale wools being, by many See also:judges, considered See also:superior so far as lustre is concerned to Lincoln and Leicester. Such remarkable advances have been made in the weights of fleeces carried by sheep of particular breeds that it is difficult tosay if finality has been reached. The following See also:list gives See also:average weights: Shetland . . 4lb Cashmere . . 4 oz. In 1885 the average weight of wool per sheep per year was about 5 lb, while 7 to 8 lb is now the average weight. Roughly speaking the weights of Australian fleeces are to-day about See also:double as compared with 1885.
The prevailing See also:colour of sheep's wool is white, but there are races with black, See also: In the Leicester wool of England, on the other hand, which is a long See also:bright staple, the serratures are not only much fewer in number, counting about 1800, but they are also less pronounced in character, so that the fibre presents a smoother, less waved character. In some inferior wools the serrations are not so many as 500 per in. A similar difference may be noted in the fineness of the fibres. The finest wool has a See also:diameter of from -Folo-o to ok in., whilst coarse Algerian wools may rise to a maximum diameter of about TIT in. Other distinguishing qualities of good wool consist in uniformity and strength of fibre with freedom from See also:tender or weak portions in its length, a condition which not unfrequently arises from See also:ill See also:health in the sheep, or is due to violent See also:climatic changes. In ill-bred wool there may also be found intermingled " kemps " or dead hairs—straight, coarse, dull fibres which show conspicuously among the wool, and become even more prominent in the manufactured and dyed goods, as they will not take dye. Wool also possesses a softness of See also:touch and an See also:elasticity both in the raw and manufactured condition which distinguish it from all other fibres. In length of staple it varies very much, attaining in combing wools to a length of as much as 15 to 20 in. In dealing with wool from a See also:practical point of view it must be recognized that it is by no means a See also:simple See also:body, but has a somewhat complex physical structure. Its composi- Chemical tion in the raw See also:state may be said to be threefold. characters Thus there is the wool-yolk—what may be termed a istics of natural impurity; the wool-See also:fat, which is not only woot present in the yolk but also permeates the fibre and seems to give it its plastic and soft handle; and the See also:cell structure proper of the fibre. The natural impurity or wool-yolk is truly a skin product and is a See also:protector of the wool-fibre rather than See also:part of the true fibre substance. The wool-fat also may be regarded as Wool in other countries. British wools. Weight of Average Fleece. Merino (Australian) 6 lb Merino (South American) 62 lb Merino-Lincoln 8-lo lb Breed. Breed. Weight of Average Fleece. Southdown 6 lb Lincoln I2 lb See also:independent of the true fibrous substance, but it is well to recognize that if the wool-fibre be entirely freed from the wool-fat it loses its plastic and elastic nature and is considerably damaged. In cleansing wool the true fibre mass may be disturbed and partially destroyed not only by dry but also by " wet " See also:heat, and may be entirely disintegrated by means of alkalies, &c., with heat. The wool-fibre will almost free itself from the natural impurities—the yolk—in the presence of tepid See also:water. This is taken advantage of in the various steeping See also:machines placed on the market, which partially scour the wool by means of its own yolk—principally through the potash salts present. According to See also:Hummel the See also:composition of the average wool-yolk is as follows: Moisture; . . 4 to 24% Dirt . . 3 to 24% Yolk . . . . 12 ,, 47% Wool-fibre. . . 15 „ 72% The potash salts are usually recovered from the See also:wash-water products and a marked See also:economy thereby effected. The natural wool-fat—popularly known as " lanoline "—may be partially got rid of in the steeping See also:process, but it is almost invariably necessary to free the wool still further from it by actually scouring the wool on either the " emulsion " or " solvent " method, in either case the See also:action being largely physical. Additional information and CommentsThere are no comments yet for this article.
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