EVOLUTION . The See also:

• MODERN

It would be difficult to say what branches of See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

Yet the first indistinct germ of such an idea appears to emerge in See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

Its first emanation as plastic nature contains the original soul or deity out of which all individual souls issue. Early See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

The primordial air is conceived as animated. Anaximenes seems to have inclined to a view of cosmic evolution as throughoutinvolving a quasi-spiritual See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

It may be observed, too, that the hypothesis of a primitive compact See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

126. or vital principle, with See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

So, too, in his See also:

• PSYCHOLOGY
• PSYCHOLOGY (>Guxrl, the mind or soul, and X yos, theory)

The necessity in the world's order is regarded by the Stoics as identical with the divine See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

All living and sentient things are formed out of insentient atoms (e.g. See also:

• WORMS

The course of human history is regarded by those writers who are most concerned to refute Judaism as a progressive divine See also:

• EDUCATION

The leading thought is that of a descending series of intelligences, each emanating from its predecessor, and having its appropriate region in the universe. Jewish Philosophy.—In the Jewish speculations of the middle ages may be .found curious forms of the doctrine of emanations uniting the Biblical idea of creation with elements See also:

• DRAWN

This matter is differentiated into particular things (which are not privations but perfections) through the addition of an individualizing principle (haecceitas) to the universal (quidditas). The whole world is represented by the figure of a See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

225. See also:

• GIORDANO, LUCA (1632–1705)

These theories, however, contain little that bears directly on the hypothesis of a natural evolution of things. In the view of Hobbes, the difficulty of the genesis of conscious minds is solved by saying that sensation and thought are part of the reaction of the See also:

• ORGAN

Yet Descartes, in his Principia Philosophiae, laid the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

See also:

• LOCKE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1791–1855)
• LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704)
• LOCKE, MATTHEW (c. 1630-1677)

26, 27.)not practically benefit their possessor (e.g. by enabling him to avoid things at a convenient distance).' Idea of Progress in History.—Before leaving the 17th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

Here we are first struck by the results of advancing physical speculation in their bearing on the conception of the world. Careful attempts, based on new scientific truths, are made to explain the genesis of the world as a natural process. See also:

• MAUPERTUIS, PIERRE LOUIS MOREAU DE (1698–1759)

103, where an interesting See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

Holbach thus worked out the basis of a rigorously materialistic conception of evolution. The question of, human development which Holbach touched on was one which occupied many minds both in and out of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

Lewes points out that Leibnitz is inconsistent in his account of the intelligence of man in relation to that of lower animals, since when answering Locke he no longer regards these as differing in degree only.development. In this case, however, we cannot say that each step goes out of the other as in that of individual development. Each monad is an original See also:

• INDEPENDENT

Thus man is said to be the highest product of nature, and as such to be dependent on all lower products. All material things are assimilated to one another as organic, the vitalizing principle being inherent in all matter. The development of man is explained in connexion with that of the earth, and in relation to climatic variations, &c. Man's mental faculties are viewed as related to his organization, and as developed under the pressure of the necessities of life.3 Kant.—Kant's relation to the doctrine of evolution is a many-sided one. In the first place, his peculiar system of subjective See also:

• IDEALISM (from Gr. i5Ea, archetype or model, through been urged of the truth of its point of view is the persistency Fr. idealisme)

287, and Leibnitzsche Gedanken in der modernen Naturwissenschaft, p. 23 seq.). 3 For I-Ierder's position in relation to the modern doctrine of evolution see F. von Barenbach's Herder als Vorganger Darwins, a work which tends to exaggerate the proximity of the two writers. 4 Kant held it probable that other See also:

• PLANETS, MINOR

From this capability of natural development (which already involves a teleological idea) Kant distinguishes the power of moral self-development or self-liberation from the dominion of nature, the gradual realization of which constitutes human history or progress. This moral development is regarded as a gradual approach to that rational, social and See also:

• POLITICAL

The detailed See also:

• EXHIBITION

By means of this process the bodies of the solar system See also:

• SEPARATE

" This process (W. See also:

• WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823— )
• WALLACE, LEWIS [LEW] (1827—1905)
• WALLACE, SIR RICHARD
• WALLACE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1270-1305)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM (1768-1843)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM VINCENT (1814-1865)

1 of finitudes only. HISTORY] as conditioned in time by lower forms. In this respect it resembles Leibnitz's idea of the world as a development; the idea of evolution is in each case a metaphysical as distinguished from a scientific one. Hegel gives a place in his metaphysical system to the mechanical and the teleological views; yet in his treatment of the world as an evolution the idea of end or purpose is the predominant one. Of the followers of Hegel who have worked out his peculiar idea of evolution it is hardly necessary to speak. A bare reference may be made to J. K. F. See also:

• ROSENKRANZ, JOHANN KARL FRIEDRICH (1805-1879)

Moreover, Schopenhauer's subjective idealism, and his view of time as something illusory, hindered him from viewing this process as a sequence of events in time. Thus he ascribes eternity of existence to species under the form of the " Platonic ideas." As See also:

• LUDWIG, KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1816—1895)
• LUDWIG, OTTO (1813-1865)

At this point it is convenient to leave the guidance of See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

See also:

• MALPIGHI, MARCELLO (1628-1694)

Mais cette See also:

• IMAGINATION

La Terre vient de sortir des MAINS du CREATEUR. Des causes preparees par sa SAGESSE font developper de toutes parts les Germes. Les ttres grganises commencent A. jouir de 1'existence. Its etoient probablement alors bien differens de ce qu'ils sont aujourd'hui. Its 1'etoient autant que ce premier Monde differeit de celui que nous habitons. Notts manquons de moyens pour juger de ces dissemblances, et peut-titre que le plus habile Naturaliste qui auroit ete place dans ce premier Monde y auroit entierement meconnu nos Plantes et nos Animaux." The two parts of Bonnet's hypothesis, namely, the doctrine that all living things proceed from pre-existing germs, and that these contain, one enclosed within the other, the germs of all future living things, which is the hypothesis of " emboltement," and the doctrine that every germ contains in miniature all the organs of the adult, which is the hypothesis of evolution or development, in the See also:

• PRIMARY

The " molecules organiques " are physical equivalents of Leibnitz's " monads." It is a striking example of the difficulty of getting See also:

• PEOPLE

The schoyl of Cuvier was lamentably deficient in embryologists; and it was only in the course of the first See also:

• THIRTY

5. The observation of the existence of structures, in a rudimentary and apparently useless condition, in one species of a group, which are fully developed and have definite functions in other species of the same group. 6. The observation of the effects of varying conditions in modifying living organisms. 7. The observation of the facts of See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

La religion chretienne vent que nous le croyons ainsi, et la raison naturelle nous persuade entierement cette verite; See also:

• CAR (Late Lat. carra)

L. M. de Maupertuis suggested a curious hypothesis as to the causes of variation, which he thinks may be sufficient to account for the origin of all animals 2 Principes de la philosophie, Troisieme partie, § 45. Ethices, Pars tertia, Praefatio. Systeme de la Nature. Essai sur la formation des corps organises, 175I, xiv. from a single pair., See also:

• JEAN

Quoique mon unique objet dans cet article n'ait etc que de traiter de la cause physique de 1'entretien de la vie des titres organiques, malgre cela j'ai ose avancer en debutant, que l'existence de ces titres etonnants n'appartiennent nullement a la nature; que tout ce qu'on peut entendre par le mot nature, ne pouvoit donner la vie, c'est-a-dire, que toutes les qualites de la matiere, jointes a toutes les circonstances possibles, et meme a 1'activite repandue dans l'univers, ne pouvaient point produire un "titre muni du mouvement organique, capable de reproduire son semblable, et sujet a la mort. ' 686. Tousles individus de cette nature, qui existent, proviennent d'individus semblables qui tous ensemble constituent 1'espece entiere. Or, je crois qu'il est aussi impossible a I'homme de connoltre la cause physique du premier individu de chaque espece, que d'assigner aussi physiquement la cause de 1'existence de la matiere ou de 1'univers entier. C'est an moins ce que le resultat de mes connaissances et de' mes refiexions me portent a penser. S'il existe beaucoup de varietes produites par 1'effet des circonstances, ces varietes ne denaturent point les especes; mais on se trompe, sans doute souvent, en indiquant comme espece, ce qui nest que variete; et aloes je seas que cette erreur peut tirer a consequence dans les raisonnements que Pon fait sur cette matiere." 2 The first three volumes of Treviranus's Biologic, which contains his general views of evolution, appeared between 1802 and 1805. The Recherches sur l'organisation des corps vivants, which sketches out Lamarck's doctrines, was published in 1802; but the full development of his views in the Philosophic zoologique did not take place until 1809. 1 Considerations philosophiques sur la gradation naturelle des formes de l'e"tre; ou les essais de la nature qui apprend a faire I'homme (1768). 2 Recherches sur les causes des principaux faits physiques, par J. B. Lamarck. See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Seconde annee de la Republique. In the preface, Lamarck says that the work was written in 1776, and presented to the See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

On the other hand, Spencer¢ and E. Haeckel5 dealt with the whole problem of evolution. The profound and vigorous writings of Spencer embody the spirit of Descartes in the know-ledge of our own day, and may be regarded as the Principes de la philosophic of the 19th century; while, whatever hesitation may not unfrequently be felt by less daring minds in following See also:

• HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH (1834- )

a First Principles and Principles of Biology (1860-1864). 5 Generelle Morphologic (1866). the species of a genus can hardly ever be arranged in linear series. Their natural resemblances and differences are only to be expressed by disposing them as if they were branches springing from a common hypothetical centre. Lamarck, while affirming the verbal proposition that animals form a single series, was forced by his vast acquaintance with the details of See also:

• ZOOLOGY (from Gr. Nov, a living thing, and ?byos, theory)

The apparently clear distinction between flowering and flowerless plants has been broken down by the series of gradations between the two exhibited by the Lycopodiaceae, Rhizocarpeae, and Gymnospermeae. The groups of See also:

• FUNGI (p1. of Lat. fungus, a mushroom)

2same, and that out of this one form, all, the lowest as well as the highest, are developed in such a manner that the latter pass through the permanent forms of the former as transitory stages. Aristotle, Haller, Harvey, Kielmeyer, Autenrieth, and many others have either made this observation incidentally, or, especially the latter, have drawn particular attention to it, and drawn therefrom results of permanent importance for See also:

• PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. 4 i s, nature, and koyos, discourse)

F. Wolff, to the present elaborate See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

Lamarck introduced the conception of the action of an animal on itself as a factor in producing modification. Starting from the well-known fact that the habitual use of a See also:

• LIMB

Very skilful See also:

• ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodare, to make fit, from ad, to, cum, with, and modus, measure)

The See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

In the natural process of growth, the See also:

• GAP

It is plain that we have moved far from the See also:

• CONNOTATION

See also:

• RAY (Lat. raia)
• RAY (or WRAY, as he wrote his name till 1670), JOHN (1628-1705)

In the first place, they lessen the number of separate facts to be explained; in the second, they limit the field within which explanation must be sought, since, for instance, if a particular mode of repetition of parts occur in mosses, in flowering-plants, in beetles and in elephants, the seeker of ultimate explanations may exclude from the field of his inquiry all the conditions individual to these different organic forms, and confine himself only to what is common to all of them; that is to say, practically only the living material and its environment. The See also:

• PROSECUTION

W hen an organ is stated to be variable, the biometricist demands See also:

• STATISTICS

Wallace's studies of See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

It has been a feature of great promise in recent contributions to the theory of evolution, that such contributions have received attention almost directly in proportion to the new methods of observation and the new series of facts with which they have come. Those have found little favour who brought to the debate only formal criticisms or amplifications of the Darwinian arguments, or re-marshallings of the Darwinian facts, however ably conducted. The time has not yet come for the attempt to synthesize the results of the many different and often apparently antagonistic groups of workers. The great work that is going on is the simplification of the facts to be explained by grouping them under empirical laws; and the most general statement See also:

• RELATING