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HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-...
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See also:HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM See also:FRIEDRICH (1770-1831) , See also:German philosopher, was See also:born at See also:Stuttgart on the 27th of See also:August 1770. His See also:father, an See also:official in the fiscal service of See also:Wurttemberg, is not otherwise known to fame; and of his See also:mother we hear only that she had scholarship enough to See also:teach him the elements of Latin. He had one See also:sister, Christiana, who died unmarried, and a See also:brother See also:Ludwig, who served in the See also:campaigns of See also:Napoleon. At the See also:grammar school of Stuttgart, where Hegel was educated between the ages of seven and eighteen, he was not remarkable. His See also:main productions were a See also:diary kept at intervals during eighteen months (1785-1787), and See also:translations of the See also:Antigone, the See also:Manual of See also:Epictetus, &c. But the characteristic feature of his studies was the copious extracts which from this See also:time onward he unremittingly made and preserved. This collection, alphabetically arranged, comprised annotations on classical authors, passages from See also:newspapers, See also:treatises on morals and See also:mathematics from the See also:standard See also:works of the See also:period. In this way he absorbed in their integrity the raw materials for elaboration. Yet as See also:evidence that he was not merely receptive we have essays already breathing that admiration of the classical See also:world which he never lost. His See also:chief amusement was See also:cards, and he began the See also:habit of taking See also:snuff. In•the autumn of 1788 he entered at See also:Tubingen as a student of See also:theology; but he showed no See also:interest in theology: his sermons were a failure, and he found more congenial See also:reading in the See also:classics, on the advantages of studying which his first See also:essay was written. After two years he took the degree of Ph.D., and in the autumn of 1793 received his theological certificate, stating him to be of See also:good abilities, but of middling See also:industry and knowledge, and especially deficient in See also:philosophy. As a student, his elderly See also:appearance gained him the See also:title " Old See also:man," but he took See also:part in the walks, See also:beer-drinking and love-making of his See also:fellows. He gained most from intellectual intercourse with his contemporaries, the two best known of whom were J. C. F. See also:Holderlin and See also:Schelling. With Holderlin Hegel learned to feel for the old Greeks a love which See also:grew stronger as the semi-Kantianized theology of his teachers more and more failed to interest him. With Schelling like sympathies See also:bound him. They both protested against the See also:political and ecclesiastical inertia of their native See also:state, and adopted the doctrines of freedom and See also:reason. The See also:story which tells how the two went out one See also:morning to See also:dance See also:round a See also:tree of See also:liberty in a meadow is an See also:anachronism, though in. keeping with their opinions. On leaving See also:college, he became a private See also:tutor at See also:Bern and lived in intellectual See also:isolation. He was, however, far from inactive. He compiled a systematic See also:account of the fiscal See also:system of the See also:canton Bern, but the main See also:factor in his See also:mental growth came from his study of See also:Christianity. Under the impulse given by See also:Lessing and See also:Kant he turned to the See also:original records of Christianity, and attempted to construe for himself the real significance of See also:Christ. He wrote a See also:life of Jesus, in which Jesus was simply the son of See also:Joseph and See also:Mary. He did not stop to criticize as a philologist, and ignored the miraculous. He asked for the See also:secret contained in the conduct and sayings of this man which made him the See also:hope of the human See also:race. Jesus appeared as revealing the unity with See also:God in which the Greeks in their best days unwittingly rejoiced, and as lifting the eyes of the See also:Jews from a lawgiver who metes out See also:punishment on the transgressor, to the destiny which in the See also:Greek conception falls on the just no less than on the unjust. The interest of these ideas is twofold. In Jesus Hegel finds the expression for something higher than See also:mere morality: he finds a See also:noble spirit which rises above the contrasts of virtue and See also:vice into the See also:concrete life, seeing the See also:infinite always embracing our finitude, and proclaiming the divine which is in man and cannot be overcome by See also:error and evil, unless the man See also:close his eyes and ears to the godlike presence within him. In religious life, in See also:short, he finds the principle which reconciles the opposition of the temporal mind. But, secondly, the See also:general source of the See also:doctrine that life is higher than all its incidents is of interest. He does not See also:free himself from the current theology either by rational moralizing like Kant, or by bold speculative See also:synthesis like See also:Fichte and Schelling. He finds his See also:panacea in the concrete life of humanity. But although he goes to the Scriptures, and tastes the mystical spirit of the See also:medieval See also:saints, the Christ of his conception has traits that seem borrowed from See also:Socrates and from the heroes of See also:Attic tragedy, who suffer much and yet smile gently on a destiny to which they were reconciled. Instead of the Hebraic doctrine of a Jesus punished for our sins, we have the Hellenic See also:idea of a man who is calmly tranquil in the consciousness of his unity with God. During these years Hegel kept up a slack See also:correspondence with Schelling and Holderlin. Schelling, already on the way to fame, kept Hegel abreast with German See also:speculation. Both of them were See also:intent on forcing the theologians into the daylight, and grudged them any aid they might expect from Kant's postulation of God and See also:immortality to See also:crown the edifice of See also:ethics. Meanwhile, Holderlin in See also:Jena had been following Fichte's career with an See also:enthusiasm with which he infected Hegel. It is pleasing to turn from these vehement struggles of thought to a tour which Hegel in See also:company with three other tutors made through the Bernese Oberland in See also:July and August 1796. Of this tour he See also:left a See also:minute diary. He was delighted with the varied See also:play of the waterfalls, but no glamour blinded him to the squalor of Swiss See also:peasant life. The glaciers and the rocks called forth no raptures. " The spectacle of these eternally dead masses gave me nothing but the monotonous and at last tedious idea, ` Es ist so.' " Towards the close of his engagement at Bern, Hegel had received hopes from Schelling of a See also:post at Jena. Fortunately his friend HOlderlin, now tutor in See also:Frankfort, secured a similar situation there for Hegel in the See also:family of Herr See also:Gogol, a See also:merchant (See also:January 1797). The new post gave him more leisure and the society he needed. About this time he turned to questions of See also:economics and See also:government. He had studied See also:Gibbon, See also:Hume and See also:Montesquieu in See also:Switzerland. We now find him making extracts from the See also:English newspapers on the Poor-See also:Law See also:Bill of 1796; criticising the Prussian See also:land See also:laws, promulgated about the same time; and See also:writing a commentary on See also:Sir See also: But such an issue, he saw well, could only be the outcome of violence—of " See also:blood and See also:iron. " The philosopher did not pose as a See also:practical statesman. He described the German empire in its nullity as a conception without existence in fact. In such a state of things it was the business of the philosopher to set forth the outlines of the coming See also:epoch, as they were already moulding themselves into shape, amidst what the See also:ordinary See also:eye saw only as the disintegration of the old forms of social life. His old interest in the religious question reappears, but in a more philosophical See also:form. Starting with the contrast between a natural and a See also:positive See also:religion, he regards a positive religion as one imposed upon the mind from without, not a natural growth crowning the round of human life. A natural religion, on the other See also:hand, was not, he thought, the one universal religion of every clime and See also:age, but rather the spontaneous development of the See also:national See also:conscience varying in varying circumstances. A See also:people's religion completes and consecrates their whole activity: in it the people rises above its finite life in limited See also:spheres to an infinite life where it feels itself all at one. Even philosophy with Hegel at this epoch was subordinate to religion; for philosophy must never abandon the finite in the See also:search for the infinite. Soon, however, Hegel adopted a view according to which philosophy is a higher mode of apprehending the infinite than even religion. At Frankfort, meanwhile, the philosophic ideas of Hegel first assumed the proper philosophic form. In a MS. of 102 See also:quarto sheets, of which the first three and the seventh are wanting, there is preserved the original See also:sketch of the Hegelian system, so far as the See also:logic and See also:metaphysics and part of thephilosophy of nature are concerned. The third part of the system—the ethical theory—seems to have been composed afterwards; it is contained in its first draft in another MS. of 30 sheets. Even these had been preceded by earlier See also:Pythagorean constructions envisaging the divine life in divine triangles. Circumstances soon put Hegel in the way to See also:complete these outlines. His father died in January 1799; and the slender sum which Hegel received as his See also:inheritance, 3154 gulden (about £z6o), enabled him to think once more of a studious life. At the close of 1800 we find him asking Schelling for letters of introduction to See also:Bamberg, where with cheap living and good beer he hoped to prepare himself for the intellectual excitement of Jena. The upshot was that Hegel arrived at Jena in January 18or. An end had already come to the brilliant epoch at Jena, when the romantic poets, See also:Tieck, See also:Novalis and the Schlegels made it the headquarters of their fantastic See also:mysticism, and Fichte turned the results of Kant into the banner of revolutionary ideas. Schelling was the main philosophical See also:lion of the time; and in some quarters Hegel was spoken of as a new See also:champion summoned to help him in his struggle with the more prosaic continuators of Kant. Hegel's first performance seemed to justify the rumour. It was an essay on the difference between the philosophic systems of Fichte and Schelling, tending in the main to support the latter. Still more striking was the agreement shown in the Critical See also:Journal of Philosophy, which Schelling and Hegel wrote conjointly during the years 18oz-1803. So latent was the difference between them at this epoch that in one or two cases it is not possible to determine by whom the essay was written. Even at a later period See also:foreign critics like See also:Cousin saw much that was alike in the two doctrines, and did not hesitate to regard Hegel as a See also:disciple of Schelling. The dissertation by which Hegel qualified for the position of Privatdozent (De orbitis planetarum) was probably chosen under the See also:influence of Schelling's philosophy of nature. It was an unfortunate subject. For while Hegel, depending on a numerical proportion suggested by See also:Plato, hinted in a single See also:sentence that it might be a See also:mistake to look for a See also:planet between See also:Mars and See also:Jupiter, Giuseppe Piazzi (q.v.) had already discovered the first of the asteroids (See also:Ceres) on the 1st of January r8or. Apparently in August, when Hegel qualified, the See also:news of the See also:discovery had not yet reached him, but critics have made this luckless See also:suggestion the ground of attack on a priori philosophy. Hegel's lectures, in the See also:winter of 1801-r8oz, on logic and metaphysics were attended by about eleven students. Later, in 1804, we find him with a class of about See also:thirty, lecturing on his whole system; but his See also:average attendance was rather less. Besides philosophy, he once at least lectured on mathematics. As he taught, he was led to modify his original system, and See also:notice after notice of his lectures promised a See also:text-See also:book of philosophy—which, however, failed to appear. Meanwhile, after the departure of Schelling from Jena in the See also:middle of 1803, Hegel was left to work out his own views. Besides philosophical studies, where he now added See also:Aristotle to Plato, he read See also:Homer and the Greek tragedians, made extracts from books, attended lectures on See also:physiology, and dabbled in other sciences. On his own See also:representation at See also:Weimar, he was in See also:February 1805 made a See also:professor extraordinarius, and in July 18o6 See also:drew his first and only See also:stipend—moo thalers. At Jena, though some of his hearers became attached to him, Hegel was not a popular lecturer any more than K. C. F. See also:Krause (q.v.). The ordinary student found J. F. See also:Fries (q.v.) more intelligible. _ Of the lectures of that period there still remain considerable notes. The See also:language often had a theological tinge (never entirely absent), as when the " idea " was spoken of, or " the See also:night of the divine See also:mystery," or the See also:dialectic of the See also:absolute called the " course of the divine life. " Still his view was growing clearer, and his difference from Schelling more palpable. Both Schelling and Hegel stand in a relation to art, but while the aesthetic See also:model of Schelling was found in the contemporary world, where art was a See also:special See also:sphere and the artist a See also:separate profession in no intimate connexion with the age and nation, the model of Hegel was found rather in those works of national art in which art is not a part but an aspect of the See also:common life, and the artist is not a mere individual but a concentration of the See also:passion and power of beauty in the whole community. " Such art," says Hegel, " is the common good and the work of all. Each See also:generation hands it on beautified to the next; each has done something to give utterance to the universal thought. Those who are said to have See also:genius have acquired some special aptitude by which they render the general shapes of the nation their own work, one in one point, another in another. What they produce is not their invention, but the invention of the whole nation; or rather, what they find is that the whole nation has found its true nature. Each, as it were, piles up his See also: Niethammer (1766–1848) on the See also:day before the See also:battle, he speaks with admiration of the " world-soul," the See also:emperor, and with See also:satisfaction of the probable overthrow of the Prussians. The See also:scholar's wish was to see the clouds of See also:war pass away, and leave thinkers to their peaceful work. His See also:manuscripts were his main care; and doubtful of the safety of his last despatch to Bamberg, and disturbed by the See also:French soldiers in his lodgings, he hurried off, with the last pages of the Phdnomenologie, to take See also:refuge in the See also:pro-See also:rector's See also:house. Hegel's fortunes were now at the lowest ebb. Without means, and obliged to See also:borrow from Niethammer, he had no further hopes from the impoverished university. He had already tried to get away from Jena. In 1805, when several lecturers left in See also:con-sequence of diminished classes, he had written to Johann Heinrich See also:Voss (q.v.), suggesting that his philosophy might find more congenial See also:soil in See also:Heidelberg; but the application See also:bore no See also:fruit. He was, therefore, glad to become editor of the See also:Bamberger Zeitung (1807–1808). Of his editorial work there is little to tell; no leading articles appeared in his columns. It was not a suitable vocation, and he gladly accepted the rectorship of the Aegidien-gymnasium in See also:Nuremberg, a post which he held from See also:December 1808 to August 1816. See also:Bavaria at this time was modernizing her institutions. The school system was reorganized by new regulations, in accordance .with which Hegel wrote a See also:series of lessons in the outlines of philosophy—ethical, logical and psychological. They were published in 184o by See also:Rosenkranz from Hegel's papers.
As a teacher and See also:master Hegel inspired confidence in his pupils, and maintained discipline without pedantic interference in their associations and See also:sports. On See also:prize-days his addresses summing up the history of the school See also:year discussed some topic of general interest. Five of these addresses are preserved. The first is an exposition of the advantages of a classical training, when it is not confined to mere grammar. " The perfection and grandeur of the master-works of Greek and See also:Roman literature must be the intellectual See also:bath, the See also:secular See also:baptism, which gives the first and unfading See also:tone and See also:tincture of See also:taste and See also:science." In another address, speaking of the introduction of military exercises at school, he says: " These exercises, while not in-tended to withdraw the students from their more immediate See also:duty, so far as they have any calling to it, still remind them of the possibility that every one, whatever See also:rank in society he may belong to, may one day have to defend his See also:country and his See also: Hegel's letters to his wife, written during his solitary See also:holiday See also:tours to See also:Vienna, the See also:Netherlands and See also:Paris, breathe of kindly and happy See also:affection. Hegel the tourist—recalling happy days spent together; confessing that, were it not because of his sense of duty as a traveller, he would rather be at See also:home, dividing his time between his books and his wife; commenting on the See also:shop windows at Vienna; describing the See also:straw hats of the Parisian ladies—is a contrast to the professor of a profound philosophical system. But it shows that the enthusiasm which in his days of courtship moved him to See also:verse had blossomed into a later age of domestic See also:bliss. In 1812 appeared the first two volumes of his Wissenschaft der Logik, and the work was completed by a third in 1816. This work, in which his system was for the first time presented in what, with a few See also:minor alterations, was its ultimate shape, found some See also:audience in the world. Towards the close of his eighth session three professorships were almost simultaneously put within his reach—at See also:Erlangen, Berlin and Heidelberg. The Prussian offer expressed a doubt that his long See also:absence from university teaching might have made him rusty, so he accepted the post at Heidelberg, whence Fries had just gone to Jena (October 1816). Only four hearers turned up for one of his courses. Others, however, on the See also:encyclopaedia of philosophy and the history of philosophy drew classes of twenty to thirty. While he was there Cousin first made his acquaintance, but a more intimate relation See also:dates from Berlin. Among his pupils was See also:Hermann F. W. See also:Hinrichs (q.v.), to whose Religion in its Inward Relation to Science (1822) Hegel contributed an important See also:preface. The strangest of his hearers was an Esthonian See also:baron, Boris d'Yrkull, who after serving in the See also:Russian army came to Heidelberg to hear the See also:wisdom of Hegel. But his books and his lectures were alike obscure to the baron, who betook himself by Hegel's See also:advice to simpler studies before he returned to the Hegelian system.
At Heidelberg Hegel was active in a See also:literary way also. In 1817 he brought out the Encyklopadie d. philos. Wissenschaften See also:im Grundrisse (4th ed., Berlin, 1817; new ed., 1870) for use at his lectures. It is the only exposition of the Hegelian system as a whole which we have See also:direct from Hegel's own hand. Besides this work he wrote two reviews for the Heidelberg Jahrbiicher—the first on F. H. See also:Jacobi, the other a political pamphlet which called forth violent criticism. It was entitled a Criticism on the Transactions of the Estates of Wurttemberg in 1815-1816. On the 15th of See also: Though an improvement on the old constitution, it was unacceptable to the estates, jealous of their old privileges and suspicious of the king's intentions. A decided See also:majority demanded the restitution of their old laws, though the kingdom now included a large See also:population to which the old rights were See also:strange. Hegel in his essay, which was republished at Stuttgart, supported the royal pro: posals, and animadverted on the backwardness of the bureaucracy and the landed interests. In the main he was right; but he forgot too much the provocation they had received, the usurpations and selfishness of the governing family, and the unpatriotic See also:character of the king. In 1818 Hegel accepted the renewed offer of the See also:chair of philosophy at Berlin, vacant since the See also:death of Fichte. The hopes which this offer raised of a position less See also:precarious than that of a university teacher of philosophy were in one sense disappointed; for more than a professor Hegel never became. But his influence upon his pupils, and his solidarity with the put together from the notes of 1820, 1823, 1826, are in many ways the most successful of his efforts. The lectures on the philosophy of religion are another application of his method. Shortly before his death he had prepared for the See also:press a course of lectures on the proofs for the existence of God. In his lectures on religion he dealt with Christianity, as in his philosophy of morals he had regarded the state. On the one hand he turned his weapons against the rationalistic school, who reduced religion to the modicum compatible with an ordinary worldly mind. On the other hand he criticized the school of See also:Schleiermacher, who elevated feeling to a See also:place in religion above systematic theology. His middle way attempts to show that the dogmatic creed is the rational development of what was implicit in religious feeling. To do so, of course, philosophy becomes the interpreter and the superior. To the new school of E. W. See also:Hengstenberg, which regarded See also:Revelation itself as supreme, such See also:interpretation was an See also:abomination. A Hegelian school began to gather. The See also:flock included intelligent pupils, empty-headed imitators, and romantic natures who turned philosophy into lyric See also:measures. Opposition and criticism only served to define more precisely the adherents of the new doctrine. Hegel himself grew more and more into a belief in his own doctrine as the one truth for the world. He was in See also:harmony with the government, and his followers were on the winning See also:side. Though he had soon resigned all direct official connexion with the See also:schools of See also:Brandenburg, his real influence in Prussia was considerable, and as usual was largely exaggerated in popular estimate. In the narrower circle of his See also:friends his birthdays were the See also:signal for congratulatory verses. In 1826 a formal festival was got up by some of his admirers, one of whom, See also:Herder, spoke of his categories as new gods; and he was presented with much See also:poetry and a See also:silver mug. In 1830 the students struck a See also:medal in his See also:honour, and in 1831 he was decorated by an See also:order from Frederick See also: Hegel and his family retired for the summer to the suburbs, and there he finished the revision of the first part of his Science of Logic. On the beginning of the winter session, however, he returned to his house in the Kupfergraben. On this occasion an altercation occurred between him and his friend Gans, who in his notice of lectures on See also:jurisprudence had recommended Hegel's Philosophy c f Right. Hegel, indignant at what he deemed patronage, demanded that the See also:note should be withdrawn. On the 14th of See also:November, after one Prussian government, gave him a position such as few professors have held. In 1821 Hegel published the Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts (2nd ed., 1840; ed. G. J. B. Bolland, 1901; Eng. trans., Philosophy of Right, by S. W. Dyde, 1896). It is a combined system of moral and political philosophy, or a See also:sociology dominated by the idea of the state. It turns away contemptuously and fiercely from the sentimental aspirations of reformers possessed by the democratic doctrine of the rights of the omnipotent nation. Fries is stigmatized as one of the " ringleaders of shallowness " who were See also:bent on substituting a fancied tie of enthusiasm and friendship for the established order of the state. The disciplined philosopher, who had devoted himself to the task of comprehending the organism of the state, had no See also:patience with feebler or more See also:mercurial minds who recklessly laid hands on established ordinances, and set them aside where they contravened humanitarian sentiments. With the principle that whatever is real is rational, and whatever is rational is real, Hegel fancied that he had stopped the mouths of political critics and constitution-mongers. IIis theory was not a mere formulation of the Prussian state. Much that he construed as necessary to a state was wanting in Prussia; and some of the reforms already introduced did not find their place in his system. Yet, on the whole, he had taken his side with the government. See also:Altenstein even expressed his satisfaction with the book. In his disgust at the crude conceptions of the enthusiasts, who had hoped that the war of liberation might end in a See also:realm of internal liberty, Hegel had forgotten his own youthful vows recorded in verse to Holderlin, " never, never to live in peace with the See also:ordinance which regulates feeling and See also:opinion." And yet if we look deeper we see that this is no See also:worship of existing See also:powers. It is rather due to an overpowering sense of the value of organization—a sense that liberty can never be dissevered from order, that a vital interconnexion between all the parts of the body politic is the source of all good, so that while he can find nothing but See also:brute See also:weight in an organized public, he can compare the royal See also:person in his ideal form of constitutional See also:monarchy to the dot upon the See also:letter i. A keen sense of how much is at stake in any alteration breeds suspicion of every reform. During his thirteen years at Berlin Hegel's whole soul seems to have been in his lectures. Between 1823 and 1827 his activity reached its maximum. His notes were subjected to perpetual revisions and additions. We can form an idea of them from the shape in which they appear in his published writings. Those on See also:Aesthetics, on the Philosophy of Religion, on the Philosophy of History and on the History of Philosophy, have been published by his editors, mainly from the notes of his students, under their separate heads; while those on logic, See also:psychology and the philosophy of nature are appended in the form of illustrative and explanatory notes to the sections of his Encyklopadie. During these years hundreds of hearers from allpartsof Germany, and beyond, came under his influence. His fame was carried abroad by eager or intelligent disciples. At Berlin Henning served to prepare the intending disciple for See also:fuller See also:initiation by the master himself. Edward Gans (q.v.) and Heinrich Gustav See also:Hotho (q.v.) carried the method into special spheres of inquiry. At See also:Halle Hinrichs maintained the standard of Hegelianism amid the opposition or indifference of his colleagues. Three courses of lectures are especially the product of his Berlin period: those on aesthetics, the philosophy of religion and the philosophy of history. In the years preceding the revolution of 1830, public interest, excluded from political life, turned to theatres, See also:concert-rooms and picture-galleries. At these Hegel became a frequent and appreciative visitor and made extracts from the art-notes in the newspapers. In his holiday excursions, the interest in the See also:fine arts more than once took him out of his way to see some old See also:painting. At Vienna in 1824 he spent every moment at the See also:Italian See also:opera, the See also:ballet and the picture-galleries. In Paris, in 1827, he saw See also: Philosophy.—Hegelianism is confessedly one of the most difficult of But the world goes on in its life, heedless of the demands of virtue. all philosophies. Every one has heard the See also:legend which makes Hegel The principle of nature is to live and let live. Reason abandons say, " One man has understood me, and even he has not." He her efforts to See also:mould the world, and is content to let the aims of abruptly hurls us into a world where old habits of thought fail us. individuals work out their results independently, only stepping in In three places, indeed, he has attempted to exhibit the transition to to See also:lay down precepts for the cases where individual actions conflict, his own system from other levels of thought; but in none with and to test these precepts by the rules of formal logic. much success. In the See also:introductory lectures on the philosophy of So far we have seen consciousness on one hand and the real world religion he gives a rationale of the difference between the modes of on the other. The See also:stage of Geist reveals the consciousness no consciousness in religion and philosophy (between Vorstellung and longer as critical and antagonistic but as the indwelling spirit of a Begriff). In the beginning of the Encyklopadie he discusses the community, as no longer isolated from its surroundings but the defects of dogmatism, See also:empiricism, the philosophies of Kant and See also:union of the single and real consciousness with the vital feeling that Jacobi. In the first See also:case he treats the formal or psychological animates the community. This is the lowest stage of concrete aspect of the difference; in the latter he presents his doctrine less consciousness—life, and not knowledge; the spirit inspires, but does in its essential character than in special relations to the prominent not reflect. It is the age of unconscious morality, when the in-systems of his time. The Phenomenology of Spirit, regarded as an dividual's life is lost in the society of which he is an organic member. introduction, suffers from a different See also:fault. It is not an introduction But increasing culture presents new ideals, and the mind, absorbing —for the philosophy which it was to introduce was not then fully the ethical spirit of its environment, gradually emancipates itself elaborated. Even to the last Hegel had not so externalized his from conventions and superstitions. This Aufklarung prepares system as to treat it as something to be led up to by See also:gradual steps. the way for the See also:rule of conscience, for the moral view of the world His philosophy was not one aspect of his intellectual life, to be con- as subject of a moral law. From the moral world the next step templated from others; it was the ripe fruit of concentrated re- is religion; the moral law gives place to God; but the idea of Godflection, and had become the one all-embracing form and principle of head, too, as it first appears, is imperfect, and has to pass through his thinking. More than most thinkers he had quietly laid himself the forms of nature-worship and of art before it reaches a full
open to the influences of his time and the lessons of history. utterance in Christianity. Religion in this shape is the nearest step
The Phenomenology is the picture of the Hegelian philosophy in to the stage of absolute knowledge; and this absolute knowledge—the making—at the stage before the scaffolding has been removed " the spirit knowing itself as spirit "—is not something which
from the See also:building. For this reason the book is at once the leaves these other forms behind but the full comprehension of them
The most brilliant and the most difficult of Hegel's works—the as the organic constituents of its empire; " they are the memory and
Pheno- most brilliant because it is to some degree an autobiography the See also:sepulchre of its history, and at the same time the actuality, truth menologv• of Hegel's mind—not the abstract record of a logical and certainty of its See also:throne." Here, according to Hegel, is the See also: The mind existence. It is See also:realism as well as idealism, and never quits its hold coming through a thousand phases of mistake and disappointment to on facts. Compared with Fichte and Schelling, Hegel has a sober, a sense and realization of its true position in the universe—such is the hard, realistic character. At a later date, with the See also:call of Schelling See also:drama which is consciously Hegel's own history, but is represented to Berlin in 184i, it became fashionable to speak of Hegelianism as a objectively as the process of spiritual history which the philosopher negative philosophy requiring to be complemented by a " positive " reproduces in himself. The Phenomenology stands to the Encyklo- philosophy which would give reality and not mere ideas. The cry padie somewhat as the dialogues of Plato stand to the Aristotelian was the same as that of See also:Krug (q.v.), asking the philosophers who treatises. It contains almost all his philosophy—but irregularly and expounded the absolute to construe his See also:pen. It was the cry of the without due proportion. The See also:personal See also:element gives an undue Evangelical school for a personal Christ and not a dialectical See also:Logos. prominence to recent phenomena of the philosophic See also:atmosphere. The claims of the individual, the real, material and historical fact, It is the account given by an inventor of his own discovery, not it was said, had been sacrificed by Hegel to the universal, the ideal, the explanation of an outsider. It therefore to some extent assumes the spiritual and the logical. from the first the position which it proposes ultimately to reach, There was a truth in these criticisms. It was the very aim of and gives not a See also:proof of that position, but an account of the ex- Hegelianism to render fluid the fixed phases of reality—to show perience (Erfahrung) by which consciousness is forced from one existence not to be an immovable See also:rock limiting the efforts of thought, position to another till it finds See also:rest in Absolutes Wissen. but to have thought implicit in it, waiting for See also:release from its The Phenomenology is neither mere psychology, nor logic, nor petrifaction. Nature was no longer, as with Fichte, to be a mere moral philosophy, nor history, but is all of these and a great See also:deal See also:spring-See also:board to evoke the latent powers of the spirit. Nor was it, more. It needs not See also:distillation, but expansion and See also:illustration as in Schelling's earlier system, to be a See also:collateral progeny with from contemporary and antecedent thought and literature. It mind from the same womb of indifference and identity. Nature and treats of the attitudes of consciousness towards reality under the mind in the Hegelian system—the external and the spiritual world six heads of consciousness, self-consciousness, reason (Vernunft), —have the same origin, but are not co-equal branches. The natural spirit (Geist), religion and absolute knowledge. The native attitude world proceeds from the " idea," the spiritual from the idea and of consciousness towards existence is reliance on the evidence of nature. It is impossible, beginning with the natural world, to the senses; but a little reflection is sufficient to show that the explain the mind by any process of distillation or development, reality attributed to the external world is as much due to intellectual unless consciousness or its potentiality has been there from the conceptions as to the senses, and that these conceptions elude us first. Reality, See also:independent of the individual consciousness, there when we try to See also:fix them. If consciousness cannot detect a permanent must be; reality, independent of all mind, is an impossibility. At See also:object outside it, so self-consciousness cannot find a permanent the basis of all reality, whether material or mental, there is thought. subject in itself. It may, like the Stoic, assert freedom by holding But the thought thus regarded as the basis of all existence is not
consciousness with its distinction of ego and non-ego. It is rather the stuff of which both mind and nature are made, neither extended as in the natural world, nor self-centred as in mind. Thought in its See also:primary form is, as it were, thoroughly transparent and absolutely fluid, free and mutually interpenetrable in every part—the spirit in its seraphic scientific life, before creation had produced a natural world, and thought had risen to independent existence in the social organism. Thought in this primary form, when in all its parts completed, is what Hegel calls the " idea." But the idea, though fundamental, is in another sense final, in the process of the world. It only appears in consciousness ,as the crowning development of the mind. Only with philosophy does thought become fully conscious of itself in its origin and development. Accordingly the history of philosophy is the presupposition of logic, or the three branches of philosophy form a circle.
The exposition or constitution of the " idea " is the work of the Logic. As the See also:total system falls into three parts, so every part of Logic. the system follows the triadic law. Every truth, every
reality, has three aspects or stages; it is the unification of two contradictory elements, of two partial aspects of truth which are not merely contrary, like See also:black and See also: Or again, the process of scientific See also:induction is a threefold See also:chain; the original See also:hypothesis (the first unification of the fact) seems to melt away when confronted with opposite facts, and yet no scientific progress is possible unless the stimulus of the original unification is strong enough to clasp the discordant facts and establish a reunification. Thesis, See also:antithesis and synthesis, a Fichtean See also:formula, is generalized by Hegel into the perpetual law of thought. In what we may call their psychological aspect these three stages are known as the abstract stage, or that of understanding (Verstand), the dialectical stage, or that of negative reason, and the speculative stage, or that of positive reason (Vernunft). The first of these attitudes taken alone is dogmatism; the second, when similarly isolated, is See also:scepticism; the third, when unexplained by its elements, is mysticism. Thus Hegelianism reduces dogmatism, scepticism and mysticism to factors in philosophy. The abstract or dogmatic thinker believes his object to be one, See also:simple and stationary, and intelligible apart from its surrounding. He speaks, e.g., as if See also:species and genera were fixed and unchangeable; and fixing his eye on the ideal forms in their purity and self-sameness, he scorns the phenomenal world, whence this identity and persistence are absent. The dialectic of negative reason rudely dispels these theories. Appealing to reality it shows that the identity and permanence of forms are contradicted by history; instead of unity it exhibits multiplicity, instead of identity difference, instead of a whole, only parts. Dialectic is, therefore, a dislocating power; it shakes the solid structures of material thought, and exhibits the instability latent in such conceptions of the world. It is the spirit of progress and change, the enemy of See also:convention and conservatism; it is absolute and universal unrest. In the realm of abstract thought these transitions take place lightly. In the worlds of nature and mind they are more palpable and violent. So far as this Hegel seems on the side of revolution. But reason is not negative only; while it disintegrates the See also:mass or unconscious unity, it builds up a new unity with higher organization. But this third stage is the place of effort, requiring neither the surrender of the original unity nor the ignoring of the diversity afterwards suggested. The stimulus of See also:contradiction is no doubt a strong one; but the easiest way of escaping it is to shut our eyes to one side of the antithesis. What is required, therefore, is to readjust our original thesis in such a way as to include and give expression to both the elements in the process. The universe, then, is a process or development, to the eye of philosophy. It is the process of the absolute—in religious language, the manifestation of God. In the background of all the absolute is eternally See also:present; the rhythmic See also:movement of thought is the self-unfolding of the absolute. God reveals Himself in the logical idea, in nature and in mind; but mind is not alike conscious of its absoluteness in every stage of development. Philosophy alone See also:sees God revealing Himself in the ideal organism of thought as it were a possible deity See also:prior to the world and to any relation between God and actuality; in the natural world, as a series of materialized forces and forms of life; and in the spiritual world as the human soul, the legal and moral order of society, and the creations of art, religion and philosophy. This introduction of the absolute became a stumbling-See also:block to See also:Feuerbach and other members of the " Left." They rejected as an illegitimate See also:interpolation the eternal subject of development, and, instead of one continuing God as the subject of all the predicates by which in the logic the absolute is defined, assumed only a series of ideas, products of philosophic activity. They denied the theological value of the logical forms—the development of these forms being in their opinion due to the human thinker, not to a self-revealing absolute. Thus they made man the creator of the absolute. But with this modification on the system another necessarily followed; a mere logical series could not create nature. And thus the material universe became the real starting-point. Thought became only the result of organic conditions—subjective and human; and the system of Hegel was no longer an idealization of religion, but a naturalistic theory with a prominent and See also:peculiar logic. The logic of Hegel is the only See also:rival to the logic of Aristotle. What Aristotle did for the theory of See also:demonstrative reasoning, Hegel attempted to do for the whole of human knowledge. His logic is an enumeration of the forms or categories by which our experience exists. It carried out Kant's doctrine of the categories as a priori synthetic principles, but removed the See also:limitation by which Kant denied them any constitutive value except in See also:alliance with experience. According to Hegel the terms in which thought exhibits itself are a system of their own, with laws and relations which reappear in a less obvious shape in the theories of nature and mind. Nor are they restricted to the small number which Kant obtained by manipulating the current subdivision of judgments. But all forms by which thought holds sensations in unity (the formative or synthetic elements of language) had their place assigned in a system where one leads up to and passes over into another. The fact which ordinary thought ignores, and of which ordinary logic therefore provides no account, is the presence of gradation and continuity in the world. The general terms of language simplify the universe by reducing its variety of individuals to a few forms, none of which exists simply and perfectly. The method of the understanding is to See also:divide and then to give a separate reality to what it has thus distinguished. It is part of Hegel's See also:plan to remedy this one-sided character of thought, by laying See also:bare the gradations of ideas. He See also:lays special stress on the point that abstract ideas when held in their See also:abstraction are almost interchangeable with their opposites—that extremes meet, and that in every true and concrete idea there is a coincidence of opposites. The beginning of the logic is an illustration of this. The logical idea is treated under the three heads of being (Seyn), essence (Wesen) and notion (Begriff). The simplest See also:term of thought is being; we cannot think less about anything than when we merely say that it is. Being—the abstract " is "—is nothing definite, and nothing at least is. Being and not being are thus declared identical—a proposition which in this unqualified shape was to most people a stumbling-block at the very See also:door of the system. Instead of the mere " is " which is as yet nothing, we should rather say " becomes," and as " becomes " always implies " something," we have determinate being—" a being " which in the next stage of definiteness becomes " one." And in this way we pass on to the quantitative aspects of being. The terms treated under the first head, in addition to those already mentioned, are the abstract principles of quantity and number, and their application in measure to determine the limits of being. Under the title of essence are discussed those pairs of correlative terms which are habitually employed in the explanation of the world—such as law and phenomenon, cause and effect, reason and consequence, substance and attribute. Under the head of notion are considered, firstly, the subjective forms of conception, See also:judgment and See also:syllogism; secondly, their realization in See also:objects as mechanically, chemically or teleologically constituted; and thirdly, the idea first of life, and next of science, as the complete interpenetration of thought and objectivity. The third part of logic evidently is what contains the topics usually treated in logic-books, though even here the province of logic in the ordinary sense is exceeded. The first two divisions—the " objective logic "—are what is usually called metaphysics. The characteristic of the system is the gradual way in which idea is linked to idea so as to make the See also:division into chapters only an arrangement of convenience. The judgment is completed in the syllogism; the syllogistic form as the perfection of subjective thought passes into objectivity, where it first appears embodied in a See also:mechanical system; and the teleological object, in which the members are as means and end, leads up to the idea of life, where the end is means and means end indissolubly till death. In some cases these transitions may be unsatisfactory and forced; it is apparent that the linear development from " being " to the " idea " is got by transforming into a logical order the sequence that has roughly prevailed in philosophy from the Eleatics; cases• might be quoted where the reasoning seems a play upon words; and it may often be doubted whether certain ideas do not involve extra-logical considerations. The order of the categories is in the main outlines fixed; but in the minor details much depends upon the philosopher, who has to fill in the gaps between ideas, with little guidance from the data of experience,, and to assign to the stages of development names which occasionally deal hardly with language. The merit of Hegel is to have indicated and to a large extent displayed the filiation and mutual limitation of our forms of thought; to have arranged them in the order of their See also:comparative capacity to give a satisfactory expression to truth in the totality of its relations; and to have broken down the See also:partition which in Kant separated the formal logic from the transcendental See also:analytic, as well as the general disruption between logic and See also:meta-physic. It must at the same time be admitted that much of the work of See also:weaving the terms of thought, the categories, into a system has a hypothetical and tentative character, and that Hegel has rather pointed out the path which logic must follow, viz. a criticism of the terms of scientific and ordinary thought in their filiation and interdependence, than himself in every case kept to the right arrangement. Still it remains a great point to have even attempted way. The day for a fuller investigation of this problem will partly some system in the dark anomalies which See also:lie under the normal depend upon the progress of the study of language in the direction consciousness, and to have traced the See also:genesis of the intellectual marked out by W. von See also:Humboldt. faculties from See also:animal sensitivity. The Philosophy of Nature starts with the result of the logical The theory of the mind as objectified in the institutions of law, development, with the full scientific " idea." But the relations of the family and the state is discussed in the " Philosophy of Right." Phllo• pure thought, losing their inwardness, appear as relations Beginning with the antithesis of a legal system and 2 Law sophyof of space and time; the abstract development of thought morality, Hegel, carrying out the work of Kant, presents and nature. appears as See also:matter and movement. Instead of thought, we the synthesis of these elements in the ethical life (Sittlich- history. have perception; instead of dialectic, See also:gravitation; instead keit) of the family and the state. Treating the family as of See also:causation, sequence in time. The whole falls under the three an instinctive realization of the moral life, and not as the result of heads of See also:mechanics, physics and " organic "—the content under each See also:contract, he shows how by the means of wider associations due to varying somewhat in the three See also:editions of the Encyklopadie. The private interests the state issues as the full home of the moral spirit, first treats of space, time, matter, movement; and in the See also:solar system where intimacy of interdependence is combined with freedom of we have the representation of the idea in its general and abstract independent growth. The state is the consummation of man as material form. Under the head of physics we have the theory of finite; it is the necessary starting-point whence the spirit rises to an the elements, of See also:sound, See also:heat and cohesion, and finally of chemical absolute existence in the spheres of art, religion and philosophy. In See also:affinity—presenting the phenomena of material change and inter- the finite world or temporal state, religion, as the finite organization change in a series of special forces which generate the variety of the of a church, is, like other See also:societies, subordinate to the state. But life of nature. Lastly, under the head of " organic," come See also:geology, on another side, as absolute spirit, religion, like art and philosophy, See also:botany and animal physiology—presenting the concrete results of is not subject to the state, but belongs to a higher region. these processes in the three kingdoms of nature. The political state is always an individual, and the relations of The charges of superficial analogies, so freely urged against the these states with each other and the " world-spirit " of which they " Natur-philosophie " by critics who forget the impulse it gave to are the manifestations constitute the material of history. The See also:physical See also:research by the See also:identification of forces then believed to be Lectures on the Philosophy of History, edited by Gans and subseradically distinct, do not particularly affect Hegel. But in general quently by Karl Hegel, is the most popular of Hegel's works. The it may be said that he looked down upon the mere natural world. history of the world is a See also:scene of judgment where one people and The meanest of the fancies of the mind and the most casual of its one alone holds for awhile the See also:sceptre, as the unconscious See also:instrument whims he regarded as a better See also:warrant for the being of God than of the universal spirit, till another rises in its place, with a fuller any single object of nature. Those who supposed See also:astronomy to measure of liberty—a larger superiority to the bonds of natural inspire religious See also:awe were horrified to hear the stars compared to and artificial circumstance. Three main periods—the See also:Oriental, eruptive spots on the face of the See also:sky. Even in the animal world, the Classical and the Germanic—in which, respectively the single the highest stage of nature, he saw a failure to reach an independent See also:despot, the dominant order, and the man as man possess freedom and rational system of organization; and its feelings under the —constitute the history of the world. Inaccuracy in detail and continuous violence and menaces of the environment he described artifice in the arrangement of isolated peoples are inevitable in as insecure. anxious and unhappy. such a See also:scheme. A graver mistake, according to some critics, is His point of view was essentially opposed to the current views of that Hegel, far from giving a law of progress, seems to suggest that science. To See also:metamorphosis he only allowed a logical value, as the history of the world is nearing an end, and has merely reduced explaining the natural See also:classification; the only real, existent meta- the past to a logical formula. The See also:answer to this See also:charge is partly morphosis he saw in the development of the individual from its that such a law seems unattainable, and partly that the idealistic embryonic stage. Still more distinctly did he contravene the general content of the present which philosophy extracts is always an tendency of scientific explanation. " It is held the See also:triumph of advance upon actual fact, and so does throw a See also:light into the future. science to recognize in the general process of the See also:earth the same And at any See also:rate the method is greater than Hegel's employment of it. categories as are exhibited in the processes of isolated bodies. This But as with Aristotle so with Hegel—beyond the ethical and is, however, an application of categories from a field where the political sphere rises the world of absolute spirit in art, religion and conditions are finite to a sphere in which the circumstances are philosophy. The psychological distinction between the 3. Art, infinite." In astronomy he depreciates the merits of See also:Newton and three forms is that sensuous perception (Anschauung) relion elevates See also:Kepler, accusing Newton particularly, a propos of the is the See also:organon of the first, presentative conception amt. distinction of centrifugal and centripetal forces, of leading to a (Vorstellung) of the second and free thought of the third. confusion between what is mathematically to be distinguished and The work of art, the first embodiment of absolute mind, soppy, what is physically separate. The principles which explain the fall of shows a sensuous conformity between the idea and the an See also:apple will not do for the See also:planets. As to See also:colour, he follows Goethe, reality in which it is expressed. The so-called beauty of nature is and uses strong language against Newton's theory, for the See also:barbarian, for Hegel an See also:adventitious beauty. The beauty of art is a beauty born of the conception that light is a See also:compound, the incorrectness of his in the spirit of the artist and born again in the spectator; it is not observations, &c. In See also:chemistry, again, he objects to the way in like the beauty of natural things, an incident of their existence, but which all the chemical elements are treated as on the same level. is " essentially a question, an address to a responding See also:breast, a call The third part of the system is the Philosophy of Mind. Its to the heart and spirit." The perfection of art depends on the degree three divisions are the " subjective mind " (psychology), the " ob- of intimacy in which idea and form appear worked into each other. jective mind " (philosophic jurisprudence, moral and From the different proportion between the idea and the shape in See also:PhIlo soppy political philosophy) and the " absolute mind " (the which it is realized arise three different forms of art. When the idea, ofmlad. philosophy of art, religion and philosophy). The subjects itself indefinite, gets no further than a struggle and endeavour for 1. Psycho- of the second and third divisions have been treated by its appropriate expression, we have the symbolic, which is the logy. Hegel with great detail. The " objective mind " is the Oriental, form of art, which seeks to compensate its imperfect ex- topic of the Rechts-Philosophie, and of the lectures on the pression by See also:colossal and enigmatic structures. In the second or Philosophy of History; while on the " absolute mind " we have classical form of art the idea of humanity finds an adequate sensuous the lectures on Aesthetic, on the Philosophy of Religion and on the representation. But this form disappears with the decease of Greek History of Philosophy—in short, more than one-third of his works. national life, and on its collapse follows the romantic, the third form The purely psychological See also:branch of the subject takes up See also:half of of art; where the harmony of form and content again grows de-the space allotted to Geist in the Encyklopadie. It falls under fective, because the object of See also:Christian art—the infinite spirit—is a the three heads of See also:anthropology, phenomenology and psychology theme too high for art. Corresponding to this division is the classiproper. Anthropology treats of the mind in union with the body fication of the single arts. First comes See also:architecture—in the main, —of the natural soul—and discusses the relations of the soul with symbolic art; then See also:sculpture; the classical art See also:par excellence; they the planets, the races of mankind, the See also:differences of age, dreams, are found, however, in all three forms. Painting and See also:music are the animal See also:magnetism, See also:insanity and See also:phrenology. In this obscure region specially romantic arts. Lastly, as a union of painting and music it is See also:rich in suggestions and rapprochements; but the ingenuity of comes poetry, where the sensuous element is more than ever sub-these speculations attracts curiosity more than it satisfies scientific See also:ordinate to the spirit. inquiry. In the Phenomenology consciousness, self-consciousness The lectures on the Philosophy of Art stray largely into the next-and reason are dealt with. The title of the See also:section and the contents sphere and dwell with zest on the close connexion of art and religion; recall, though with some important See also:variations, the earlier half of his and the discussion of the decadence and rise of religions, of the first work; only that here the historical background on which the aesthetic qualities of Christian legend, of the age of See also:chivalry, &c., stages in the development of the ego were represented has dis- make the A sthetik a book of varied interest. appeared. Psychology, in the stricter sense, deals with the various The lectures on the Philosophy of Religion, though unequal in forms of theoretical and practical See also:intellect, such as attention, memory, their See also:composition and belonging to different dates, serve to exhibit See also:desire and will. In this account of the development of an rode- the vital connexion of the system with Christianity. Religion, like pendent, active and intelligent being from the stage where man like art, is inferior to philosophy as an exponent of the harmony between the Dryad is a portion of the natural life around him, Hegel has man and the absolute. In it the absolute exists as the poetry and combined what may be termed a physiology and See also:pathology of the music of the heart, in the inwardness of feeling. Hegel after exmind—a subject far wider than that of ordinary psychologies, and pounding the nature of religion passes on to discuss its historical one of vast See also:intrinsic importance. It is, of course, easy to set aside phases, but in the immature state of religious science falls into these questions as unanswerable, and to find artificiality in the several mistakes. At the bottom of the See also:scale of nature-worships he places the religion of sorcery. The gradations which follow are apportioned with, some uncertainty amongst the religions of the See also:East. With the See also:Persian religion of light and the See also:Egyptian of enigmas we pass to those faiths where Godhead takes the form of a spiritual individuality, i.e. to the See also:Hebrew religion (of sublimity), the Greek (of beauty) and the Roman (of See also:adaptation). Last comes absolute religion, in which the mystery of the reconciliation between God and man is an open doctrine. This is Christianity, in which God is a Trinity, because He is a spirit. The revelation of this truth is the subject of the Christian Scriptures. For the Son of God, in the immediate aspect, is the finite world of nature and man, which far from being at one with its Father is originally in an attitude of estrangement. The history of Christ is the visible reconciliation between man and the eternal. With the death of Christ this union, ceasing to be a mere fact, becomes a vital idea—the Spirit of God which dwells in the Christian community. The lectures on the History of Philosophy deal disproportionately with the various epochs, and in some parts date from the beginning of Hegel's career. In trying to subject history to the order of logic they sometimes misconceive the filiation of ideas. But they created the history of philosophy as a scientific study. They showed that a philosophical theory is not an See also:accident or whim, but an exponent of its age determined by its antecedents and environments, and handing on its results to the future. (W. W.; X.) Hegelianism in England.—On the See also:continent of Europe the direct influence of Hegelianism was comparatively short-lived. This was due among other causes to the direction of attention to the rising science of psychology, partly to the reaction against the speculative method. In England and See also:Scotland it had another See also:fate. Both in theory and practice it here seemed to See also:supply precisely the See also:counter-active to prevailing tendencies towards empiricism and See also:individualism that was required. In this respect it stood to philosophy in some-what the same relation that the influence of Goethe stood to literature. This explains the hold which it had obtained upon both English and Scottish thought soon after the middle of the 19th See also:century. The first impulse came from J. F. See also:Ferrier and J. H. See also:Stirling in See also:Edinburgh, and B. See also:Jowett in See also:Oxford. Already in the seventies there was a powerful school of English thinkers under the See also:lead of Edward See also:Caird and T. H. See also:Green devoted to the study and exposition of the Hegelian system. With the general See also:acceptance of its main principle that the real is the rational, there came in the eighties a more critical examination of the precise meaning to be attached to it and its bearing on the problems of religion. The earlier Hegelians had interpreted it in the sense that the world in its ultimate essence was not only spiritual but self-conscious intelligence whose nature was reflected inadequately but truly in the finite mind. They thus seemed to come forward in the character of exponents rather than critics of the Western belief in God, freedom and immortality. As time went on it became obvious that without departure from the spirit of idealism Hegel's principle was susceptible of a different interpretation. Granted that rationality taken in the sense of inner coherence and self-consistency is the ultimate standard of truth and reality, does self-consciousness itself answer to the demands of this criterion? If not, are we not forced to deny ultimate reality to See also:personality whether human or divine? The question was definitely raised in F. H. See also:Bradley's Appearance and Reality (1893; 2nd ed., 1897) and answered in the negative. The completeness and self-consistency which our ideal requires can be realized only in a form of being in which subject and object, will and desire, no longer stand as exclusive opposites, from which it seemed at once to follow that the finite self could not be a reality nor the infinite reality a self. On this basis Bradley See also:developed a theory of the Absolute which, while not denying that it must be conceived of spiritually, insisted that its spirituality is of a See also:kind that finds no See also:analogy in our self-conscious experience. More recently J. M. E. McTaggart's Studies in Hegelian Dialectic (1896), Studies in Hegelian Cosmology (1901) and Some Dogmas of Religion (1906) have opened a new See also:chapter in the interpretation of Hegelianism. Truly perceiving that the ultimate metaphysical problem is, here as ever, the relation of the One and the Many, McTaggart starts with a See also:definition of the ideal in which our thought upon it can come to rest. He finds it where (a) the unity is for each individual, (b) the whole nature of the individual is to be for the unity. It follows from such a conception of the relation that the whole cannot itself be an individual apart from the individuals in whom it is realized, in other words, the Absolute cannot be a Person. But for the same reason—viz. that in it first and in it alone this condition is realized—the individual soul must be held to be an ultimate reality reflecting in its inmost nature, like the See also:monad of Leibniz, the complete fulness and harmony of the whole. In reply to Bradley's See also:argument for the unreality of the self, Hegel is interpreted as meaning that the opposition between self and not-self on which it is founded is one that is self-made and in being made is transcended. The fuller our knowledge of reality the more does the object stand out as an invulnerable system of ordered parts, but the process by which it is thus set in opposition to the subject is also the process by which we understand and transform it into the substance of our own thought. From this position further consequences followed. Seeing that the individual soul must thus be taken to stand in respect to its inmost essence in complete harmony with the whole, it must eternally be at one with itself: allchange must be appearance. Seeing, moreover, that it is, and is maintained in being, by a fixed relation to the Absolute, it cannot fail of immortality. No pantheistic theory of an eternal substance continuously expressing itself in different individuals who fall back into its being like drops into the ocean will here be sufficient. The ocean is the drops. " The Absolute requires each self not to make up a sum or to maintain an average but in respect of the self's special and unique nature." Finally as it cannot cease, neither can the individual soul have had a beginning. Pre-existence is as necessary and certain as a future life. If memory is lacking as a See also:link between the different lives, this only shows that memory is not of the sub-stance of the soul. In view of these differences (amounting almost to an See also:antinomy of paradoxes) in interpretation, it is not surprising to find that recent years have witnessed a violent reaction in some quarters against Hegelian influence. This has taken the direction on the one hand of a revival of realism (see METAPHYSICS), on the other of a new form of subjective idealism (see See also:PRAGMATISM). As yet neither of these movements has shown sufficient coherence or stability to establish itself as a rival to the main current of philosophy in England. But they have both been urged with sufficient ability to See also:arrest its progress and to call for a reconsideration and restatement of the fundamental principle of idealist philosophy and its relation to the fundamental problems of religion. This will probably be the main work of the next generation of thinkers in England (see IDEALISM). Among Italian Hegelians are A. See also:Vera, Raffaele Mariano and B. Spaventa (1817–1883); see V. de See also:Lucia, L'Hegel in Italia (1891). In See also:Sweden, J. J. Borelius of See also:Lund; in See also:Norway, G. V. Lyng (d. 1884), M. J. Monrad (1816–1897) and G. See also:Kent (d. 1892) have adopted Hegelianism; in See also:France, P. See also:Leroux and P. See also:Prevost. For his life see K. Rosenkranz, Leben Hegels (Berlin, 1844) ; R. R. See also:Haym, Hegel and See also:seine Zeit (Berlin, 1857) ; K. Kostlin, Hegel in philosophischer, politischer and nationaler Beziehung (Tiibingen, 1870) ; Rosenkranz, Hegel als deuischer National-Philosoph (Berlin, 1870), and his Neue Studien, vol. iv. (Berlin, 1878); Kuno See also:Fischer, Hegels Leben and Werke. For the philosophy see A. See also:Ruge's Aus friiherer Zeit, vol. iv. (Berlin, 1867) ; Haym (as above) ; F. A. See also:Trendelenburg (in Logische Untersuchungen) ; A. L. Kym (Metaphysische Untersuchungen) and C. Hermann (Hegel and See also:die logische Frage and other works) are noticeable as See also:modern critics. Georges See also:Noel, La Logique de Hegel (Paris, 1897) ; Aloys Schmid, Die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Hegelschen Logik (See also:Regensburg, 1858). Vera has translated the Encyklopadie into French, with notes; C. Benard, the Asthetik. In English J. See also:Hutcheson Stirling's Secret of Hegel (2 vols., See also:London, 1865) contains a See also:translation of the beginning of the Wissenschaft der Logik; the " Logic " from the Encyklopddie has been translated, with Prolegomena, by W. See also:Wallace (Oxford, 1874). W. Wallace also translated the third part of the Encyklopadie in Hegel's. Philosophy of Mind (1894) ; R. B. See also:Haldane the History of Philosophy (1896) ; E. B. Speirs, lectures on the Philosophy of Religion (1895); J. Sibree, lectures on The Philosophy of History (1852) ; B. Bosanquet, Philosophy of Fine Art, Introduction (1886) ; W. Hastie, The Philosophy of Art 1886); S. W. Dyde, The Philosophy of Right (1896). Other recent expositions and criticisms in addition to those mentioned above are W. T. See also:Harris, Hegel's Logic (189o); J. B. See also:Baillie, Origin and Significance of Hegel's Logic (1901), and Outline of the Idealistic Construction of Experience (1906) ; P. See also:Barth, Die Geschichisphilosophie Hegels (189o) ; J. A. Marrast, La Philosophic du droll de Hegel (1869); L. Miraglia, I Principii fondamenteli e la dottrina eticogiuridica di Hegel (1873) ; Hegel's Philosophy of the State and History (Germ. Phil. Classics, 1887) ; G. Bolland, Philosophic des Rechts (1902), and Hegels Philosophic der Religion (1901); E. Ott, Die Religionsphilosophie Hegels (1904) ; J. M. Sterrett, Studies in Hegel's Philosophy of Religion (1891); M. Ehrenhauss, Hegels Gottesbegrif (188o) ; E. Caird, Hegel (188o) ; A. See also:Seth See also:Pringle-See also:Pattison, Hegelian-ism and Personality (1893) ; Millicent See also:Mackenzie, Hegel's Educational Theory and Practice (1909), with See also:biographical sketch; J. M. E. McTaggart, Commentary on Hegel's Logic (1910). (J. H. 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