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positive theology of the Moravians, he always retained an appreciation of its spiritual or symbolic significance. His philosophical position with regard to his contemporaries he had already made clear in the See also:

CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical See also:

WORK

work See also:

REINHOLD, KARL LEONHARD (1758-1823)

Reinhold, See also:

Fichte and See also:

Schelling (1803; reprinted in 1824 as Polemische Schriften), and in the more systematic See also:

TREATISES

treatises See also:

SYSTEM

System der Philosophie ads See also:

EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence Wissenschaft (1804), Wissen, Glaube and Ahnung (1805, new ed. 1905). His most important See also:

TREATISE

treatise, the Neue See also:

ODER (Lat. Viadua; Slavonic, Vjodr)

oder anthropologische Kritik der Vernunft (2nd ed., 1828–1831), was an See also:

ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to give a new See also:

FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of psychological See also:

ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis to the critical theory of See also:

KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804)

Kant. In 1811 appeared his System der Logik (ed. 1819 and 1837), a very instructive work, and in 1814 See also:

JULIUS

Julius and See also:

EVAGORAS

Evagoras, a philosophical See also:

ROMANCE

romance. In 1816 he was invited to Jena to fill the See also:

CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chcere, through O. Fr. chaire or chaiere, from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. xaOi3pa, seat, cf. "cathedral"; the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chaire

chair of theoretical philosophy (including mathematics and physics, and philosophy proper), and entered upon a crusade against the prevailing Romanticism. In politics he was a strong Liberal and Unionist, and did much to inspire the organization of the Burschenschafl. In 1816 he had published his views in a brochure, Vom deutschen Bund and deutscher Staatsverfassung, dedicated to " the youth of See also:

Germany," and his See also:

INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence gave a powerful impetus to the agitation which led in 1819 to the issue of the See also:

CARLSBAD

Carlsbad Decrees by the representatives of the German governments. Karl See also:

Sand, the murderer of See also:

Kotzebue, was one of his pupils; and a See also:

LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter of his, found on another student, warning the lad against participation in See also:

SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret See also:

SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies, was See also:

TWISTED

twisted by the suspicious authorities into evidence of his See also:

GUILT

guilt.

He was condemned by the See also:

MAINZ (Fr. Mayence)

Mainz See also:

COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

Commission; the See also:

GRAND

grand-See also:

DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

WEIMAR

Weimar was compelled to deprive him of his professorship; and he was forbidden to lecture on philosophy. The grand-duke, however, continued to pay him his See also:

STIPEND

stipend, and in 1824 he was recalled to Jena as professor of mathematics and physics, receiving permission also to lecture on philosophy in his own rooms to a select number of students. Finally, in 1838, the unrestricted right of lecturing was restored to him. He died on the loth of August 1843. The most important of the many See also:

WORKS

works written during his Jena professorate are the Handbuch der praktischen Philosophie (1817-1832), the Handbuch der psychischen Antftropoiogie (182o–1821, 2nd ed. 1837–1839), See also:

Die mathematische Naturphilosophie (1822), See also:

FOREIGN

Foreign See also:

MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

missions. System der Metaphysik (1824), Die Geschichte der Philosophie (1837- Frisian See also:

HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse is well known. On the See also:

clay lands See also:

agriculture is also extensively practised. In the high-fen See also:

DISTRICT

district See also:

PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. petia, pecia, piece, ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt. pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh peth, portion)

peat-digging is the See also:

CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief occupation. The effect of this See also:

INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry, however; is to See also:

lay See also:

BARE

bare a subsoil of diluvial sand which offers little induce ment for subsequent cultivation. Despite the See also:

general productive ness of the See also:

SOIL

soil, however, the social See also:

CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of See also:

FRIESLAND, or VRIESLAND

Friesland ha), remained in a backward See also:

state and poverty is rife in many districts The ownership of See also:

PROPERTY

property being largely in the hands of absentee landlords, the peasantry have little See also:

INTEREST

interest in the See also:

LAND

land, the profits from which go to enrich other provinces. Moreover, the nature of the fertility of the meadow-lands is such as to require little See also:

MANUAL

manual labour, and other See also:

INDUSTRIAL

industrial means of subsistence have hardly yet come into existence.

This state of affairs has given rise to a social-democratic outcry on See also:

account of which Friesland is sometimes regarded as the " See also:

Ireland of See also:

Holland." The See also:

WATER

water system of the See also:

province comprises a few small See also:

rivers (now largely canalized) in the high lands in the See also:

east, and the vast network of canals, waterways and lakes of the whole See also:

north and See also:

west. The See also:

PRINCIPAL

principal lakes are Tjeuke See also:

Meer, Sloter Meer, De Fluessen and Sneeker Meer. The tides being lowest on the north See also:

COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of the province, the See also:

SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of the Waterstaat, the See also:

government See also:

DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department (dating from 1879), provides for the largest removal of superfluous See also:

SURFACE

surface water into the Lauwerszee. But owing to the See also:

long distance which the water must travel from certain parts of the province, and the continual recession of the Lauwerszee, the drainage problem is a peculiarly difficult one, and floods are sometimes inevitable. The See also:

POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of the province is evenly distributed in small villages. The principal See also:

MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market centres are See also:

LEEUWARDEN

Leeuwarden, the chief towns, See also:

SNEEK

Sneek, See also:

BOLSWARD

Bolsward, See also:

FRANEKER

Franeker (qq.v.), Dokkum (4053) and Heerenveen (5o1 I). With the exception of Franeker and Heerenveen all these towns originally arose on the inlet of the 1840). Fries s point of view in philosophy may be described as a modified Kantianism, an attempt to reconcile the See also:

criticism of Kant and See also:

Jacobi's philosophy of belief. With Kant he regarded Kritik, or the critical investigation of the See also:

FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty of knowledge, as the essential preliminary to philosophy. But he differed from Kant both as regards the foundation for this criticism and as regards the metaphysical results yielded by it. Kant's analysis of knowledge had disclosed the a priori See also:

ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element as the necessary See also:

COMPLEMENT (Lat. complementum, from complere, to fill up)

complement of the isolated a posteriori facts of experience. But it did not seem to Fries that Kant had with sufficient accuracy examined the mode in which we arrive at knowledge of this a priori element.

According to him we only know these a priori principles through inner or psychical experience; they are not then to be regarded as transcendental factors of all experience, but as the necessary, See also:

CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant elements discovered by us in our inner experience. Accordingly Fries, like the Scotch school, places See also:

psychology or analysis of consciousness at the foundation of philosophy, and called his criticism of knowledge an anthropological critique. A second point in which Fries differed from Kant is the view taken as to the relation between immediate and mediate cognitions. According to Fries, the under-See also:

STANDING

standing is purely the faculty of See also:

PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof; it is in itself void; immediate certitude is the only source of knowledge. See also:

REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

Reason contains principles which we cannot demonstrate, but which can be deduced, and are the proper See also:

OBJECTS

objects of belief. In this view of reason Fries approximates to Jacobi rather than to Kant. His most See also:

ORIGINAL

original See also:

IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea is the See also:

GRADUATION (see also GRADUATE)

graduation of knowledge into knowing, belief and presentiment. We know phenomena, how the existence of things appears to us in nature; we believe in the true nature, the eternal essence of things (the See also:

GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good, the true, the beautiful); by means of presentiment (Ahnung) the intermediary between knowledge and belief, we recognize the supra-sensible in the sensible, the being in the phenomenon. See E. L. See also:

HENKE, HEINRICH PHILIPP KONRAD (1752 — 1809)

Henke, J. F.

Fries (1867); C. Grapengiesser, J. F. Fries, ein Gedenkblatt and Kant's " Kritik der Vernunft" and deren Fortbildung durch J. F. Fries (1882) ; H. Strasosky, J. F. Fries als Kritiker der Kantischen Erkenntnistheorie (1891); articles in See also:

ERSCH, JOHANN SAMUEL (1766–1828)

Ersch and See also:

GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1774-1851)

Gruber's Allgemeine Encyklopadie and Allgemeine deutsche Biographie; J. E. See also:

Erdmann, Hist. of Philos. (Eng. trans., See also:

LONDON

London, 1890), vol. ii.

§ 305.

End of Article: FRIES

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