See also:

• INDIVIDUALISM (from Lat. individualis, that which is not divided, an individual)

It distinguishes them from the other Aryans who settled in See also:

• PERSIA

Some even followed the course of the See also:

• INDUS

Their general character may be described as partly Indian and partly Iranian, although they have in their isolated position developed some phonetic See also:

• LAWS

sthana- sterna- s'tan or istdn thank, a See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

In the time of See also:

• ASOKA

Beyond these again, there is the band of Outer Languages (Kashmiri, with its Pisaca basis), See also:

• LAHNDA (properly Lahnda or Lahinda, western, or Lahnde- di boli, the language of the West)

These still remained synthetic, and still retained the non-classical forms of See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

A still later and more abraded stage is also discussed under the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

Intermediate Languages. 10,917,712 Rajasthani See also:

• PAHARI (properly Pahari, the language of the mountains)

. Sindhi 3,494,971 Maharastra . . (b) See also:

• SOUTHERN

This can be traced through the A pabhrarizsa -hi to the Pali -dhi. There all Indian clues cease, and it is not till we recognize its relationship to the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Finally, owing to the ever-present influence of literary Sanskrit, words are, and have been for many generations, borrowed direct from that language. Some of these borrowed words are due to the existence of Sanskrit as the language of religion. Their use is paralleled by the employment of Greek and Latin words for religious technical terms in all the languages of See also:

• EUROPE

But the most important See also:

• ACCRETION (from Lat. ad, to, and crescere, to grow)

Here we may mention 4, sounded like the aw in " See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

In the eastern-languages there is a tendency to throw the accent even farther back. There is also everywhere a tendency to lighten the pronunciation of a short vowel after an accented syllable, so that it is barely audible. Thus, calata for cdlata. In some dialects, e.g. the See also:

• URDU

Marathi changes s to s before palatal sounds, and the same change occurs in Bengali in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

The complicated Sanskrit system is more and more superseded by the simple uniformity of the declension of a-bases. One by one the case endings were discarded, and cases were confounded with one another till at Iength in Apabhramsa only one or two forms remained for each number. In the tertiary stage there remain in most languages only two cases, which we may call the nominative and the oblique. The latter can be employed for any case except the nominative, but the sense is usually defined by the aid of help-words called postpositions.2 It is a linguistic rule that languages in which the genitive precedes the governing noun prefer suffixes to prefixes and See also:

• VICE

3 See P. W. See also:

• SCHMIDT, H
• SCHMIDT, HEINRICH JULIAN (1818-1886)
• SCHMIDT, KARL VON (1817-1875)
• SCHMIDT, WILHELM ADOLF (1812-1887)

Above these schists See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

The north-easterly See also:

• MONSOON
• MONSOON (Arabic Mausim, season)

This is the dry See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

Tongking has a See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

The zebu See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

The flora is inter-tropical, and comprises nearly all the trees known in China and See also:

• JAPAN

Measures taken to secure the See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

The course of its history has not been free from catastrophes and accidents. There is an See also:

• APOSTOLICAL

The functions and See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

The Superior Council meets not only at Hanoi, the seat of the government, but also at Saigon, See also:

• HUE

These courts are supplemented by juges de paix in Cochin-China, and there are juges de paix at Nam-Dinh (Tongking) and Tourane; elsewhere in the protectorates the residents perform judicial functions. There are criminal courts at Saigon, My-Tho, Vinh-Long and Long-Xuyen in Cochin-China, at Hanoi in Tongking and at Pnom-Penh in Cambodia. In Cochin-China Annamese law is administered in the French courts in suits between natives, but native tribunals have been superseded. In Annam-Tongking, out-side the See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

The native troops, numbering over 18,000, comprised four regiments of Tongkingese tirailleurs (See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

In 1906, in Cochin-China, where the largest sum (£45,000 in 1906) is devoted to instruction, 22,500 See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

Tonnage. Entered. Cleared. Cochin-China . 1,117,054 1,007,510 Tongking . 242,119 348,947 Annam 28,065 26,406 Cambodia 2,520 2,012 Total . . . . 1,389,758 1,384,875 Over half the tonnage was French (698,178 tons entered); the 2 This does not include the expenditure on account of the 3 % See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

Commerce.-The value of the See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

141,381 The United States 126,425 The principal countries to which goods were exported were: Hong Kong . . for £1,706,5971 China and Japan . 11, 497,288 Singapore . 360,510 Burma and Siam . 80,071 The British Isles . 55,539 The principal imports were: See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

71 2,848,389 Pepper . 214,297 Pit coal . 182,077 Tin 553,914 Cotton thread „ 421,162 The customs See also:

• TARIFF (adapted in English from the French; the word comes through the Spanish tarifa, a list or schedule of prices, from the Arabic, ta'rifa, information, an inventory, 'arf, know-ledge)

History-The beginning of French influence in Indo-China See also:

• DATES

From 1884 onwards the history of Indo-China may be divided into two distinct periods, characteristic of the political conception and governmental system adopted by the French government. In the first period, 1884-1891, the French agents in Tongking and Indo-China generally proceeded under See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

With the See also:

• FLIGHT

MM. Richaud, Bihourd and See also:

• PIQUET

In this proclamation the king ordered all his subjects to obey the governor-general and to respect him, and commanded rebels to lay down arms. The effect was immediate—disorders in the delta ceased. The pirates alone, in revolt against the king of Annam and all authority, continued their brigandage. But the governor-general instituted four " military districts," the commanders of which were commissioned to destroy the pirates. At the same time he placed a force of native See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

Luang-Prabang was in the hands of the Siamese, who had also established posts at Stung-treng and elsewhere. See also:

• FRICTION (from Lat. fricare, to rub)

This " See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

On the Toth of February 1896 a law was passed authorizing a loan of 8o,000,000 francs, and on the 14th of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

The Indo-European (I.E.) languages are a See also:

• FAMILY

It is probably related to, or the descend-See also:

• ANT
• ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan, cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aemete in Middle English became differentiated in dialect use to (mete, then amte, and so ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only u

Names of deities worshipped by the Aryan See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

Unfortunately Sir William Jones's views as to the relationship of the languages were not adopted for many years by later investigators. He had said quite definitely, " No philologer could examine them all three (Sanskrit, Greek and Latin) without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which perhaps no longer exists." See also:

• FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836— )

17 ff.) ; also Geschtchte See also:

• DES

As has been pointed out by See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

But the distinction between them and the so-called agglutinative languages is one of degree rather than of See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

9 if. It is in fact used in three senses. (I) Indo-European is treated as preceding and different from all its descendants, a single uniform speech without dialects. But, strictly, no such language can exist, for even individual members of the same family differ from one another in pronunciation, vocabulary, ' See also:

• LEO
• LEO (THE LION)
• LEO, BROTHER (d. c. 1270)
• LEO, HEINRICH (1799-1878)
• LEO, JOHANNES (c. 1494-1552)
• LEO, LEONARDO (1694–1744)

But even in this case the originality of the word is by no means certain, for (a) the intervening branch or branches which do not possess the word may merely have dropped it and replaced it by another; (b) the geographical position which the branches occupy in historical times may not be their original position; the branches which do not possess the word may have forced themselves into the area they now occupy after they had dropped the word; (c) if the linguistic communities which possess the word have a seaboard and the intervening communities have not, the possibility of its tra- smission in connexion with early sea-See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

131 ff.). From all this it is clear that in many cases it must be extremely uncertain what is original Indo-European and what is not. Some general characteristics can, however, be predicated from what is handed down to us in the earliest forms of all or nearly all the existing languages. (I) The noun had certainly a large number of distinct cases in the singular: nominative, See also:

• ACCUSATIVE (Lat. accusativus, sc. casus, a translation of the Gr. aletartKI vrrwves, the case concerned with cause and effect, from atria, a cause)

Forschungen, v. pp. 251 ff.) that -bh- originally belonged to the instrumental plural (cf. the Lat. filiabus, See also:

• OMNIBUS (Lat. " for all ")

On the other hand the See also:

• DEMONSTRATIVE

Greek shows this very clearly. In Athenian official inscriptions it was usual to fix the date of the record by stating at the commencement who was the chief See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

The pluperfect, the past of the perfect, is a late development and can hardly be reckoned Indo-European. In Greek the forms clearly arise from adding aorist endings to a perfect stem. The forms of Latin are not yet completely explained—but it is certain that the specially Latin meaning expressing something that was past at a time already past (relative time) is a late growth. When Homeric Greek wishes to express this meaning it uses most frequently the aorist, but also the imperfect as well as the pluperfect, the notion of relative time being derived from the context. In the earliest Latin the pluperfect is not uncommonly used with the value of the aorist perfect. As regards the future it is difficult to say how far it was an original form. Some languages, like Germanic, preserve no original form for the future. When the present is found not to be distinctive enough, periphrastic forms come in. In other languages, like Latin and Greek, there is constant confusion between subjunctive and future forms. It is impossible to distinguish by their form between Seltw (future) and Ssitw (subjunctive), between regain (future) and regain (subjunctive). A special future with a suffix -sio- (syo) is found only with certainty in the Aryan group and the Baltic languages. The future perfect is, strictly speaking, only a future made from a perfect stem; in the Latin sense it is certainly a late development, and even in early Latin, videbo has occasionally no different meaning from videbo.

The imperative, which was originally an exclamatory form to the verb, of the same kind as the vocative was to the noun, and which consisted simply of the verb stem without further suffixes, developed, partly on the analogy of the present and partly with the help of adverbs, a complete paradigm. The infinitives of all the languages are noun cases, generally stereotyped in form and no longer in See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

In Latin the locative has been confused with the genitive and the ablative, and the instrumental with the ablative. The loss of the locative as an independent case had not long preceded historical times, because it survives in Oscan, the kindred dialect of the neighbouring See also:

• CAMPANIA

The earlier writers agreed in regarding Asia as the original home of the speakers of these languages. For this belief there were various grounds, —statements in the Biblical record, the greater originality (according to Schlegel) of Sanskrit, the absurd belief that the migratiens of mankind always proceeded towards the west. The view propounded by an English philologist, Dr R. G. Latham, that the original home was in Europe, was scouted by one of the most eminent writers on the subject—See also:

• VICTOR
• VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.)
• VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS

38). See also:

• BROCA, PAUL (1824-188o)

When a human population once more occupied Northern Europe it is impossible to estimate in years. The problem may be attacked from the opposite direction. How long would it have taken for the Indo-European stock to spread from its original home to its modern areas of occupation? Some recent writers say that it is unnecessary to carry the stock back farther than 2500 B.C.—a period when the civilizations of See also:

• EGYPT

This, however, is anything but certain, even when Vacher de Lapouge has collected all the passages in ancient writers which bear upon the subject. When Diodorus (v. 32) wishes to describe the children of the Galatae, by whom apparently he means the Germans, he says that their hair as children is generally white, but as they grow up it is assimilated to the colour of their fathers. The ethnological argument as to long-headed and short-headed races (See also:

• DOLICHOCEPHALIC (long-headed)

See Schmidt's Die rheimat der Indogermanen and das europaische Zahtsystem (189o). According to Ratzel2 the See also:

• CASPIAN

An argument in favour of the original Indo-Europeans being seated in north-western Germany has been developed by G. Kossinna (Zeitschrift See also:

• FILE

The daughter was the milkmaid (Skt. du/vita from duh, See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

Before the original community, which ex-tended over a wide area with See also:

• BACTRIA (Bactriana)

Further investigation, however, did not confirm this ideally happy form of primitive civilization. Many of Pictet's etymologies were erroneous, many of his deductions based on very uncertain evidence. No recent writer adopts Pictet's views of the Indo-European family. But his list of domesticated animals is approximately correct, if domestication is used loosely simply of animals that might be kept by the Indo-European man about his See also:

• HOMESTEAD

The pastoral See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

The goat is a climber and affects the heights, while the sheep also prefers short grass to the richer pastures suited to kine. To collect and tame all those animals implies control of an extensive and varied area. What of the trees known to primitive Indo-European man? On this the greater part of the arguments regarding the original home have turned. The name for the beech extends through a considerable number of Indo-European languages, and it has generally been assumed that the beech must have been known from the first and therefore must have been a tree which flourished in the original home. Now the habitat of the beech is to the west of a line See also:

• DRAWN

In See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

178) to be partly within, partly without the beech line. The only other tree the name of which is widely spread is the See also:

• WILLOW (Salix)

In early England it is clear that the prevalent crop was barley, for See also:

• BARN

740) calls ntalifera, "apple-bearing." Here also the material for fixing the site of the original habitat is untrustworthy. The attempt has been made to limit the possible area by a consideration of three animals which are said not to occur in certain parts of it—(a) the See also:

• EEL

Such migration may possibly account for the appearance of a people using a centum language so far east as Turkestan. But our information as to Tocharish is still too fragmentary to decide the question. It is impossible here to discuss at any length the relations between the separate Indo-European languages, a subject which has formed, from somewhat different points of view, the subject of Kretschmer's Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache and Meillet's Les Dialectes inda-europeennes. Verwandtschaftsnamen, 1889). E. Meyer, from Tocharish being a centum language, has revived with reserve the hypothesis of the Asiatic origin (Geschichte des Altertums,z I. 2, p. 801), (P.