EUROPEAN See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Other noteworthy sources of revenue are See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

The infantry and rifles are armed with small-See also:

• BORE

EUROPEAN RUSSIA See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

The great territory occupied by European Russia—1600 m. in length from N. to S., and nearly as much from E. to W.—is on the whole a broad elevated See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

It is only in the S.W., where spurs of the Carpathians enter the governments of See also:

• VOLHYNIA

It is continued farther N. by plains below 30o ft., which join the depression of the middle Volga, and extend as far as the mouth of the Oka. The Ural Mountains present the aspect of a broad swelling whose strata no longer exhibit the horizontality which is characteristic of central Russia, and moreover are deeply cut into by rivers. They are connected in the W. with broad plateaus which join those of central Russia, but their orographical relations to other upheavals must be more closely studied before they can be definitely pronounced on. The rhomboidal peninsula of the See also:

• CRIMEA (ancient Tauris or Tauric Chersonese, called by the Russians by the Tatar name Krym or Crim)

Boats could be conveyed over flat and easy portages from one river-basin to another, and these portages were subsequently transformed with a relatively small amount of labour into navigable canals, and even at the present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

Dvina is formed by the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Russia front a remote antiquity, but now navigable only in its lower portion, and the Embach, navigated by steamers to Dorpat (Yuryev). The S. Dvina, which falls into the sea below Riga, is shallow above the rapids of Jacobstadt, but navigation is carried on as far as Vitebsk—corn, timber, potash, See also:

• FLAX

In the middle navigable part of its course, from Dorogobuzh to See also:

• EKATERINOSLAV

The Ural, in its lower part, constitutes the frontier between European Russia and the Kirghiz See also:

• STEPPE (from the Russ. stepi, a waste)

On the Arctic coast the forests disappear, giving place to the tundras. Finally, in the S.E., towards the Caspian, on the slopes of the southern Urals and the plateau of Obshchiy Syrt, as also in the interior of the Crimea, and in several parts of Bessarabia, there are large tracts of real See also:

• DESERT

Their influence is chiefly See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

Martynov, Das Petschoragebiet (St Petersburg, 1905); G. von See also:

• HELMERSEN, GREGOR VON (1803-1885)

Russia between May the 18th and the 24th, so that it is only in See also:

• JUNE

On the whole, See also:

• FEBRUARY

Russia (N. of 55° and W. ofY4o° E.), following directions which vary between N.E. and S.E. In July they are pushed farther towards the N., and cross the Gulf of Bothnia, while another series of cyclones sweep across middle Russia, between 5o° and 55° N. Nor are the laws of the anti-cyclones established. The winds closely depend on the routes followed by both. Generally, how-ever, it may be said that alike in January and in July W. and S.W. winds prevail in W. Russia, while E. winds are most See also:

• COMMON

The average relative moisture reaches 8o to 85% in the N., and only 70 to 81% in S. and E. Russia. In the steppes it is only 6o % during summer, and still less (57) at Astrakhan. The average amount of See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

On the other hand, several Asiatic species (Siberian See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

S. of this line begin the steppes proper, which extend to the sea and penetrate to the See also:

• FOOT

The moist soil encourages luxuriant thickets of willows (Salicineae), surrounded by dense chevaux-de-frise of See also:

• WORMWOOD

Year. November Feet. ary. to March. ° ° ° ° Archangel . 64 34 30 32.7 7.6 6o•6 16.2 4.3 See also:

• PETROZAVODSK

. 55 47 260 37.2 7.0 67.3 I8•o 5.4 Moscow . 55 45 520 39.0 12•I 66•o 23.0 7.3 See also:

• VILNA, or WILN0
• VILNA, or WILNO

46 21 -70 49.0 19.2 77.9 5.7 I.5 Sevastopol . 44 37 130 53.7 35.2 73.8 I5.4 7.2 See also:

• POTI

The Forest Region of the Russian botanists includes the greater part of the country, from the Arctic tundras to the steppes, and over this immense expanse it maintains a remarkable uniformity of character. Beketov subdivides it into two portions-the forest region proper and the " Ante-Steppe " (predstepie). The N. limit of the ante-steppe is represented by a line See also:

• DRAWN

The forests are composed of the birch, oak and other See also:

• DECIDUOUS (from Lat. decidere, to fall down)

Europe have held their ground; while in the Urals only a few—now Siberian, but formerly also European—are met with. In S.E. Russia, however, towards the Caspian, there is a notable admixture of Asiatic species. Three separate sub-regions may, however, be distinguished on the E. European plains—the tundras, including the Arctic islands, the forest region, especially the coniferous part of it, and the ante-steppe and steppes of the black earth region. The Ural Mountains might be distinguished as a fourth sub-region, while the S. coast of the Crimea and Caucasia, as well as the Caspian deserts, have each their own individuality. The fauna of the Arctic Ocean off the See also:

• NORWEGIAN

The willow-See also:

• GROUSE

A See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

Soc. Natur. of St Petersburg University, xv. (1884); Regel, Flora Rossica (1884) ; See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

Settlements belonging to the See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

Bogdanov, Birds and Mammals of the Black-Earth Region of the Volga Basin (in Russian, Kazan, 1871) ; Karelin for' the southern Urals; Kessler for fishes; Strauch, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

The See also:

• PRIMARY

Russia. It is also most probable that another similar stream—the N., coming from the See also:

• ELBE (the Albis of the Romans and the Labe of the Czechs)

Like other races of mankind, the Russian race is not pure. The Russians have absorbed. and assimilated in the course of their history a variety of Finnish and Turko-Finnish elements. Still, craniological researches show that, notwithstanding this fact, the Slav type has been maintained with remarkable persistency: Slav skulls ten and thirteen centuries old exhibit the same anthropological features as those which characterize the Slays of our own day. This may be explained by a variety of causes, of which the chief is the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

There are features—the wooden See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

The White Russians, intermingled to some extent with Great and Little Russians, Poles and Lithuanians, occupy the upper parts of the W. slope of the central plateau. The Finnish races, which in prehistoric times extended from the Ob all over N. Russia, even then were subdivided into Ugrians, Permyaks, Bulgarians and Finns proper, who drove back the previous Lapp population from what is now Finland, and about the 7th century penetrated to the S. of the Gulf of Finland, in the region of the Livs and Kurs, where they fused to some extent with the Lithuanians and the Letts. At present the races of Finnish origin are represented in 'Russia by the following: (a) the W. Finns; the Tavasts, in central Finland; the Kvaens, in N.W. Finland; the Karelians, in the E., who also occupy the lake regions of Olonets and Archangel, and have settlements in Novgorod and Tver; the Izhores, on the Neva and the S.E. coast of the Gulf of Finland; the Esths, in See also:

• ESTHONIA (Ger. Ehstland and Ehshland, Esthonian Eestimae and Meie-maa, also Viroma and Rahvama; Lettish Iggaun Senna)

Urals, that is, the steppes of Ufa and Orenburg, extend also into Perm and Samara. (3) The See also:

• CHUVASHES, or TCHUVASHES

They first entered Poland from Germany during the era of the See also:

• CRUSADES

Those inhabiting the Crimea speak Tatar, and the few who are settled in W. Russia speak See also:

• POLISH

During the closing years of the 19th century great, numbers of Germans flocked into the See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

In the Ural governments of Perm and Vyatka Great Russians are in the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

11,468,000 Lutherans 3,572,650 Reformed 85,400 See also:

• BAPTISTS

Finally, the Kalmucks are Lamaite Buddhists. In his relations with Moslems, Buddhists and even fetishists the Russian peasant looks rather to conduct than to creed, the latter being in his view simply a See also:

• MATTER

To the conservatives, known subsequently as Old Ritualists or Old Believers, this marked the beginning of the reign of See also:

• ANTICHRIST (avrixpu ros)

The Bezpopovtsi, known also as Pomoranye, because they are 1 The most important alterations were the repetition twice, instead of three times, of the " Alleluiah " at the See also:

• EUCHARIST (Gr. evXapurria, thanksgiving)

Though twice crucified and once flayed by See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

The " royal See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

The great mass of the people, 81.6%, belong to the peasant order, the others being: See also:

• NOBILITY

Moreover, many proprietors contrived to curtail seriously the allotments which the peasants had possessed under serfdom, and frequently they deprived them of precisely the parts which they were most in need of, namely, pasture lands around their houses, and forests. The effect of this, craftily calculated beforehand, was to compel the peasants to rent pasture lands from the landlord at any See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

2 It was only as late as 1904, however, that the landed proprietors were forbidden by law to inflict See also:

• CORPORAL

It is only in the steppe. governments that the situation is more hopeful. In Little Russia, where the allotments were personal (the mir existing only among state peasants), the state of affairs does not differ for the better, on account of the high redemption taxes. In the W. provinces, where the land was valued cheaper and the allotments somewhat increased after the Polish insurrection, the general situation might be better were it not for the former misery of the peasants. Finally, in the Baltic provinces nearly all the land belongs to the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

In November 1906, however, the emperor Nicholas II. promulgated a provisional See also:

• UKAZ, or UKASE (Russ., from ukazat, a shortened form of ukazlivat, to show, announce, prescribe)

Artels of one or two hundred carpenters, bricklayers, &c., are common wherever new buildings have to be erected, or railways or See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

Both N. and S. of this line it is customary to distinguish several zones, lying, generally, parallel to it, and differentiated chiefly by See also:

• CLIMATIC

In the W. governments of Kovno, Vitebsk, Vilna, Mogilev, Minsk and Grodno the climate is more temperate, but agriculture is more backward than in the Baltic provinces. The three-See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

When this happens there is great suffering from See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

The actual distribution of. arable land, forests and meadows, in European Russia and Poland is shown in the following table : European Russia. Poland. Acres. Per- Acres. Per- centage. centage. Arable land 301,435,000 26 16,900,000 53 Meadows and 185,498,000 16 6,059,000 19 pasturages . Forests 452,152,000 39 7,334,000 23 Uncultivated . 220,279,000 19 1,594,000 5 Total 1,159,364,000 100 31,887,000 100 The land in European Russia and Poland (Caucasia being excluded) is divided amongst the different classes of owners as follows: European Russia. Poland. Acres. centage. Acres. centage.

State and See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

Russia. The vine is cultivated as far N. as 490 N. (in Bessarabia, Crimea, Don Cossacks territory and Caucasia), the See also:

• ANNUAL

The best bred races of cattle are those of Poland, the W. provinces, Little Russia and the far N. (Kholmogory). Of the 55 million sheep kept in Russia only-about 15 millions belong to the fine See also:

• MERINO

As illustrating the general impoverishment of the Russian peasantry, it may be stated that the arrears of taxation owed. by them have increased enormously since 1882, when they amounted to £2,854,000, until in 1900 the total amount was put at £13,222,000. And, See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

826,200 ~ 39 The distribution of forests is very unequal, the area covered by them in the various governments varying from 70% of the total area in the Ural governments of Perm and Ufa, and 68 % in Olonets and Archangel, down to 2% in the S.E. The state is the chief owner of forests (almost exclusive owner in Archangel), and owns no less than 289,226,000 acres in European Russia and Poland (235,000,000 acres of good forests), while private persons own 171,800,000 acres, the peasant communities 67,250,000 and the imperial family 22,400,000 acres. Sericulture, which was in a flourishing condition in the 'sixties both in Caucasia and in S. Russia, was reduced to a very low ebb, in consequence of the silkworm disease, and was only renewed with any vigour towards the end of the 'eighties. At the beginning ofthe 20th century it was most developed in Transcaucasia (See also:

• KUTAIS

The imports of foreign metals in the rough and of coal are steadily increasing, while the exports, never otherwise than insignificant, show no advance. As a producer of See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

The copper industry has greatly declined since the 18th century; whereas then it kept 20 smelting See also:

• WORKS

At the same time large quantities of See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

Besides cottons the products include woollens and See also:

• CLOTH

Hence, although wages are painfully low, the cost of production to the manufacturer is relatively high; and it is still further increased by the cost of the raw materials, by the heavy rates of transport owing to the distance from the sea, by the dearness of capital and by the scarcity of fuel. As a consequence this central Russian industry, even when sup-ported by very high protective duties, is only able to produce for the home market and the markets of the adjacent territories in Asia which are under Russian political See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

399,178 642,520 708,186 See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

Furniture factories are developing greatly, as is the paper industry. Flour-mills See also:

• PLAY

The See also:

• EXTERNAL

Sea of Azov. 24.7% in the Baltic Sea and 5.2% in the White Sea. And these proportions represent fairly well the tonnages entering and clearing at the ports of these respective seas. But of the vessels that visit the Russian ports in the way of trade every year only 8.3% are Russian, the rest being of course foreign. Russian See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

At the same time the chief lines of railway which had been built by public companies with a state guarantee, and which represented a loss to the empire of £3,171,250 per annum, as well as a growing indebtedness, were bought by the state. On the whole, the state derives profit from its railways, although several of the later lines, while imperative for state purposes, must necessarily yield but a very small revenue, or be worked at a loss. The most important of the new railways is the Siberian, of which the first section, See also:

• CHELYABINSK

A railway has also been built to connect Perm with Kotlas, near the confluence of the Sukhona with the Yug, at the head of the N. Dvina. This N. portion of the Russian railway system was further completed by the opening in 1906 of a line from St Petersburg via Vologda to Vyatka, intersecting the Moscow-Archangel line at Vologda. Another line of great strategic importance was built across the Transcaspian territory to See also:

• FERGHANA, or FERGANA

(one to Siberia and two to the Ural river), while the upper Volga (Yaroslavl) is connected with Archangel by a line 523 m. long. A zone See also:

• TARIFF (adapted in English from the French; the word comes through the Spanish tarifa, a list or schedule of prices, from the Arabic, ta'rifa, information, an inventory, 'arf, know-ledge)

The total value of the Caspian fisheries is estimated at £3,000,000 per annum. Taking the Lake Aral and Siberian river fisheries into account, it is estimated that altogether the fishing industries yield a revenue to the state of £330,000 annually.' In addition from 13,000 to 6o,000 See also:

• SEALS

This question has given rise to an enormous amount of discussion among learned men, and some of the disputants have not yet laid down their arms; but for impartial outsiders who have carefully studied the See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

Hence family quarrels became very frequent. These princes were, in fact, men of like passions with ourselves, and acted as powerful men generally do in a See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

Since the days when Rurik had first chosen it as his headquarters, the little town See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

No one knew their origin or whence they came, or what religion they practised. That is known only to God, and perhaps to See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

In the first place, they never settled in the country, and they had not much direct dealings with the inhabitants. In accordance with the admonitions of Jenghiz to his children and grandchildren, they retained their pastoral mode of life, so that the subject races, agriculturists and dwellers in towns, were not disturbed in their ordinary avocations. In religious matters they were extremely tolerant. When they first appeared in Europe they were idolaters or Shamanists, and as such they had naturally no religious fanaticism; but even when they adopted See also:

• ISLAM

In order to reply to accusations brought against them, or in order to be confirmed in their functions, they had to travel to the Golden Horde on the Volga or even to the See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

The complete suppression of these small moribund states and the creation of the autocratic tsardom of Muscovy were the work of Ivan III., surnamed the Great, his son See also:

• BASIL (Russ. VASILY)

Thus all the principalities were brought under the power of Moscow, and in that respect there remained nothing for Ivan the Terrible to do. He took precautions, however, against any of the dead or moribund principalities being resuscitated, and punished with merciless severity any attempt to resist or undermine his authority. With the suppression and absorption of the independent principalities the problem was only half solved. The tsars of character Muscovy meant to be autocratic rulers alike in their of the old and in their new territories. Their forefathers tSardO'B• had been trained in the Tatar school of politics and administration, and in their ideas of government they had come to resemble Tatar khans much more than grand-princes of the old patriarchal type. Their autocratic tendencies were fostered also by the Church. As Christianity was brought into Russia from Constantinople it was only natural that the ecclesiastics, many of whom were Greeks, should admire Byzantine ideals and recommend them as See also:

• MODELS

Now the tsar of Muscovy and of all Russia adopted the airs and methods of a Tatar khan and surrounded himself with the pomp and splendours of a Byzantine emperor. Ivan III., notwithstanding the influence of his Greek consort, showed some respect for the ancient traditions and the susceptibilities of those around him, but his successor Basil did not follow his father's example. All through his reign he preferred to employ as officials men of humble origin, and habitually treated the boyars and great nobles very unceremoniously. For disobedience to his orders he imprisoned a See also:

• BOYAR (Russ. boyarin, plur. boyare)

That opportunity came when Basil died in 1533, leaving as successor a See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

For this purpose he organized, outside the See also:

• REGULAR