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MONGOLIA

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Originally appearing in Volume V18, Page 712 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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MONGOLIA , a vast territory belonging to the See also:

Chinese See also:empire, the administrative limits of which cannot be determined with precision. On the N. it is bounded by the frontier of See also:Russia, beginning at See also:Mount Kalas or Kanas (490 5' N., 87° 40' E.) in the See also:Altai, and See also:running to the S.E. corner of See also:Transbaikalia in the vicinity of Dalai-nor, thus having on the N. the Siberian provinces of See also:Tomsk, See also:Yeniseisk, See also:Irkutsk and Transbaikalia. In the E. the boundary See also:line which separates Mongolia from See also:Manchuria runs past Dalai-nor and See also:Lake Buir, See also:crossing the See also:Great See also:Khingan in 470 30' N., towards Tsitsihar in Manchuria; then, crossing the Nonni See also:river, it strikes the Sungari at Khulanchen, where it turns westwards up this river, reaching the Shara-muren river in 123° 30' E. From See also:China proper on the S. Mongolia is separated by a line running in a See also:south-westward direction up the Shara-muren and across the Mongolian See also:plateau to the bending of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river in about 40° N. and to° 3o' E. Thence the boundary describes a sinuous line, following the Great See also:Wall, and thus includes the Ordos (Ho-tau) and Alashan (Si-tao), and reaches its most See also:southern point in 36° 40' N., 104° 20' E. Thence it turns See also:north-See also:west, following the Great Wall for over 300 m.; it then crosses the plateau so as to See also:separate Mongolia from the Chinese See also:province of See also:Sin-Kiang (Han-su-sin-tsiang, which includes the Nan-shan See also:highlands and eastern See also:Turkestan), and from See also:Dzungaria, reaching the Chinese or Ektagh Altai in 46° 3o' N., 92° 50' E. From that point the boundary coincides with the See also:main See also:water-parting of the Altai Mountains till it reaches Mount Kalas. Geographically, Mongolia may thus be said to occupy both terraces of the great plateau of See also:east See also:Asia, which stretches in the south of See also:Siberia, between the Sailughem range of the Great Altai and the Great Khingan—with the exception of the Dzungarian depression. From Manchuria and China it is separated by the border See also:ridge of the plateau—the Great Khingan, while in the south-west it runs up to the See also:foot of the high See also:northern border ridges of the Tibetan plateau—an artificial frontier separating it from east Turkestan and Dzungaria. Broadly speaking, Mongolia may be divided naturally into three parts: (1) north-western Mongolia, which occupies the high See also:terrace of the plateau; (2) the See also:Gobi, in its wide sense, covering the See also:lower terrace of the plateau, together with a slightly more elevated and better-watered See also:zone along the western slope of the Great Khingan and its south-western continuation; and (3) south-eastern Mongolia, on the eastern slope of the Khingan. Of these parts, the second is considered in detail under the heading Gost.

North-western Mongolia was formerly represented as a region intersected by lofty See also:

mountain chains. It appears, however, from See also:Russian explorations during the last third of the 19th North- See also:century, that it has all the characteristics of an elevated western plateau, of a rhomboid shape (like Bohemia), bounded Mongolia. by four mountain ranges; namely, the Russian Altai on the N.W., the Sayans on the N.E., the Kentei range on the S.E., and the Ektagh Altai on the S.W. The border-ridge See also:character of the Sayans (Ergik-targak-taiga) is well established, and the same orographic character is confirmed by See also:recent explorers with regard to the Sailughem range of the Altai. The only point still remaining undecided is whether the valleys of the Bom-kemchik (a tributary of the See also:Yenisei) and its See also:left-See also:hand tributaries do not be-See also:long geographically to the Altai region. At any See also:rate, throughout the whole of north-west Mongolia, which covers an See also:area of nearly 370,000 sq. m., the See also:altitude nowhere falls below 237o ft. (Ubsa-nor) ; and the area See also:round this lake which has less than 3000 ,ft. of altitude covers only 6600 sq. m. The See also:remainder of this extensive territory ranges at altitudes of 3000 to 4500 ft., even in the bottoms of the river valleys and in the lower plains; while the ridges which constitute the water-partings rise about 2000 ft. above the See also:general level of the plateau. Along the south-western border of this See also:division of Mongolia a gigantic border-ridge, the Ektagh (or Mongolian) Altai, runs in an E.S.E. direction from the Russian Altai to 99° E. and is probably continued even farther by the Artsa-bogdo, the Saikhat and other ranges as far as the northern See also:loop of the Yellow river. The passes across the Ektagh Altai See also:lie at altitudes of 10,000 ft. in the north-west and 9250 ft. in 93° 20' E.; farther east they become much lower. But while its southern foot stands in the Dzungarian See also:trench, i.e. at altitudes of 1550 ft. only near Lake Ulungur, and at 3000 ft. in 9 ° E., its north-eastern foot rests on the high plateau, i.e. at 4260 ft. at See also:Kobdo, 5410 at Oshku, 4070 at Orok-nor on the route from See also:Kiakhta to Su-chow, and so on. Thus the Ektagh Altai is a true border-rangethat is, a lofty and steep escarpment facing the Dzungarian depression, with a See also:gentle and relatively See also:short slope towards the plateau. In the same way the Kentei (or Gentei) Mountains, as they are called, to the north of ia, and the See also:Yablonoi Mountains of Transbaikalia, separate the hi er terrace of north-west Mongolia (drained by the tributaries of the Selenga) from the lower terrace of the Gobi, which is drained by the upper tributaries of the Onon and the Kerulen, both belonging to the See also:basin of the See also:Amur.

It is also very probable that the Tannu-ola Mountains north-east of Ubsa-nor, and the Khangai Mountains between Ulyasutai and the upper Orkhon, both running W.N.W. to E.S.E., border another slightly higher terrace of the same great plateau of north-west Mongolia, upon which Lake Kossogol lies, at an altitude of 5320 ft. On this vast upper terrace even the bottoms of the river valleys are at altitudes of 4200 to 5500 ft., with one single exception—the narrow See also:

gorge of the Khua (Khi)-khem, or upper Yenisei; while the highest pass across the Tannu-ola Mountains is 7090 ft., though the others are much lower. The conception of north-west Mongolia as a region filled with mountain ranges radiating from the Altai must thus be abandoned. It is a massive swelling of the See also:earth's crust, representing the northern counterpart of the plateau of See also:Tibet. This massive swelling is cut into, between the Ektagh Altai and the eastern T'ien-shan, by the relative depression of Tarbagatai and Dzungaria, 1500 to 3000 ft. in altitude; while to the south of the eastern T'ien-shan comes the See also:Tarim depression, from 2200 to 3000 ft. high, and occupying an area of about 88,000 sq. m. Neither of these " depressions," however, penetrates beyond 94° E., and on the route from Kiakhta to Su-chow, in See also:loo° E., there is only one single See also:place (42° N.) in which the altitude drops as See also:low as 3300 ft.; everywhere else it varies between 4000 and 5000 ft. Lakes and See also:Rivers.—North-western Mongolia is well watered, and has in its western See also:part a See also:group of lakes which possess no outlet to the ocean, being in reality the rapidly desiccating remains of what were formerly much larger basins. The See also:chief of them is Ubsa-nor (2370 ft.), which receives the large river Tes. It lies in the See also:middle of a large See also:plain, and has to the west of it a smaller but much higher lake, See also:Urga-nor, besides several smaller ones. Farther south on the same wide plain lie the See also:sister lakes See also:Kirghiz-nor and Airyk-nor, which receive another large river, the Dzap'hyn, and the Kungui. Many small lakes are scattered over the plain to the east of them. A third group of lakes occur in the neighbourhood of Kobdo.

The Kobdo river, which rises in the Dain-gol (7060 ft.) in the Ektagh Altai, winds in great curves across the plateau, and enters Lake Kara-usu (3840 ft.), which also receives the Buyantu, an outflow from Lake Kobdo, and is connected by a small river with another large lake, See also:

Durga-nor, situated a See also:score of See also:miles to the east. There are also many smaller lakes fed by the glaciers of the Sailughem (Achit-nor, 465o ft., and Uryu-nor), and others scattered through the Ektagh Altai. The largest lake of this region is, however, Kosogol (Khubsu-gul), which lies at an altitude of 5320 ft., See also:close to the Russian frontier, at the foot of the See also:snow-clad Munku-sardyk. Besides the rivers just mentioned, there are others belonging to the basin of the Yenisei (Khua-or Khi-khem, Bei-khem and Bomkemchik) ; while yet others belong to the Selenga, a river formed by the junction of the Eder with the Telghir. The Selenga receives the Orkhon, at the See also:head of which remarkable See also:inscriptions were discovered in the end of the 19th century, and cleverly deciphered by See also:Professor V. See also:Thomsen of See also:Copenhagen.' The rivers which flow down the See also:outer slopes of the border-ridges become lost in the Gobi shortly after entering it. A very large portion of north-west Mongolia constitutes a high plain, 3000 to 4200 ft. in altitude, which penetrates from the south-east in a north-western direction between the Ektagh Altai and the Khangai Mountains. It has a true Mongolian character, i.e. it is covered with See also:gravel, and presents the See also:appearance of a dry See also:prairie devoid of forests. This same character is also exhibited by the bottoms of the broad valleys, while the more elevated and hilly portions of the territory, especially on their northern slopes, are covered with See also:larch, See also:cedar, See also:pine and See also:deciduous trees belonging to the Siberian See also:flora; where the forests fail they are marshy or assume the character of Alpine meadows—e.g. in the Khangai, the Tannu-ola, and on the slopes of the border-ridges. The whole of this region is covered with excellent pasture. The forests decrease as one travels southwards. For instance, while both slopes of the Sayans are covered with forests, the Tannu-ola and the Khangai Mountains have See also:woods on their northern faces only, and the Ektagh Altai is quite devoid of woods, even on its northern slope.

See also:

Climate.—Owing to its high altitude, north-western Mongolia is very See also:cold, and the severity of the See also:winter is intensified by the prevalence of cold but dry north-western winds. The north-east See also:wind brings more moisture. In summer the warm winds come from the south and south-east, but having first to See also:cross the Gobi, 1 See V. Thomsen, Inscriptions de l'0rkhon (See also:Helsingfors, 1900) they are dried before they reach north-western Mongolia. The yearly amount of See also:rain at Urga (altitude 4350 ft., at the northern foot of the Kentei Mountains) is only 91 in., and the See also:average temperatures are: year27° F., See also:January-18°, See also:July 64°; a minimum of -35° F. has been observed. The climate of Ulyasutai (5400 ft.) may be taken as ty ical, its average temperatures being: See also:year 31.6°, January -12°, my 66°. The See also:geology is stil very imperfectly known. The plateau is built up of granites, gneisses and crystalline See also:schists of Archean and probably See also:Primary See also:age. See also:Coal is known to exist to the south-east of Kobdo, in the Tannu-ola, and in the basin of the Yenisei, but its age is unknown (fresh-water See also:Jurassic ?). See also:Graphite and some See also:silver ores have also been found. The See also:fauna is a mixture of the Siberian and the Daurian—the latter penetrating up the valleys of the Selenga basin. The chief towns of north-west Mongolia are Urga, Ulyasutai, Kobdo and Ulankom.

South-eastern Mongolia is the part of Mongolia which lies on the eastern slope of the Great Khingan Mountains, entering like a See also:

wedge See also:smith- between the lower course of the Nonni river and the S western middle Sungari. Chiefly owing to the dryness of climate, Mongolia. its See also:physical characteristics are similar to those of Mongolia proper, except that the altitude of the plains is much lower. This portion of Mongolia is also much better watered, namely, by the Khatsyr, the Lao-ho and the Shara-muren, all flowing from the Khingan Mountains eastwards, and the last making the frontier between Mongolia and the Chinese province of Chihli. See also:Population.—The population of the whole of Mongolia is estimated at about 5,000,000. It consists of See also:Mongols—Eastern Mongols and Kalmucks in the west—various See also:Turkish tribes, Chinese and See also:Tunguses. The Mongols proper, with the exception of those who inhabit north-west Mongolia, may be divided into northern and southern (more properly north-western and south-eastern) Mongols. The former, belonging to the Khalkas, occupy the Gobi and the regions of the Kentei Mountains and Khingan Mountains, while the second, divided into numerous See also:minor branches, roam over south-eastern and southern Mongolia. The See also:principal occupation of the Mongols is See also:cattle-breeding, and Russian writers estimate that on an average each yurta, or See also:family, has about 50 See also:sheep, 25 horses, 15 horned cattle and so camels. The transport of goods is their next most important occupation. It is calculated that 100,000 camels are used for the transport of See also:tea only from See also:Kalgan to Siberia, and that no less than 1,200,000 camels and 300,000 ox-carts are employed in the See also:internal See also:caravan See also:trade. See also:Agriculture is only carried on sporadically, chiefly in the south, where the Mongols have been taught by the Chinese. Various domestic See also:industries are also carried on.

The trade is chiefly concentrated at Urga, Ulyasutai and Kobdo in north-west Mongolia; Kalgan, Kuku-khoto, Kuku-erghi, Dolon-nur and Biru-khoto in southern and south-eastern Mongolia; and at Kerulen in the north-east. See also:

Administration.—Before the Manchurian See also:conquest the Mongols were governed by their own feudal princes, who regarded themselves as being descended from seven different ancestors, all, however of the same See also:kin. Each group of principalities constituted a separate See also:aimak, and each principality a separate hoshun. Under Manchu See also:rule the aimaks became converted into the same number of military See also:corps, each composed of so many hoshuns as military See also:units. Each of these again was divided into sumuns or squadrons, each containing 150 families. In See also:case a hoshun contained more than 6 sumuns, every 6 of the latter were organized into a See also:regiment—tsalan. Four Manchu tsian-tsuns, or See also:governor-generals, acted as chiefs of the troops, and the See also:prince of each aimak, nominated from See also:Peking, was considered as the See also:lieutenant or assistant of his respective Manchu chief. The hoshuns were subject to their own princes, each of whom had a military adviser, generally a Manchu. Their internal or tribal affairs were in the hands of the princes, those which concerned a whole aimak being settled at gatherings of the princes under the eldest of them, named See also:khan. This organization was maintained by the Manchu rulers, the khan being elected from among the princes, and the latter having each an adviser, tusalakchi, nominated from Peking. Mongolia is now administered by a Lifan Yuen or superintendency with headquarters at Peking. Excluding the territory to which the name of Mongolia is geographically applied, but which is included in the provinces of Shansi and Chihli, Mongolia is divided into inner and outer divisions.

Inner Mongolia,lying between the See also:

desert of Gobi, China proper and Manchuria, is divided into 24 aimaks. There are two military See also:governors-general and two commissaries of the See also:viceroy of Chihli, having See also:control of See also:civil matters. One of each pair of officials is stationed at Kalgan, and the other at See also:Jehol. Outer Mongolia, the remainder of the territory, has 4 aimaks, three of which are under hereditary khans. There is a Chinese imperial See also:agent at Urga.

End of Article: MONGOLIA

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