See also:

• TIBET, or THIBET

Among the See also:

• MONGOLS

This last is frequently found piled high and split into blocks apparently of artificial formation, but probably the result of the See also:

• ACTION

This mountain-system was only vaguely known, in fact its existence throughout its length was only suspected, until Sven Hedin, during his journeys in 1906-1908, crossed it at several points. He found the system to form the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

The gold-digging is referred to in somewhat mythical terms by See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Mesny, has observed similar evidences of the existence of gold at comparatively shallow depths in Koko Nor region, and records that he has seen nuggets, " varying from the See also:

• SIZE

Intense dryness pervades the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

Everywhere there are signs of the diminution of the lakes and the recession of the water line—a phenomenon that has also been observed in the Pamirs. There are still enormous glaciers about the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

Two typical species are Lychnis apetala, which extends to See also:

• SPITSBERGEN (the name being Dutch is incorrectly, though commonly, spelled Spitzbergen)

The principal cereals raised are barley and See also:

• BUCKWHEAT

Birds are fairly numerous, and include many varieties of water-See also:

• FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel)

The See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

A. W.; T. H. H.') See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

His Tibetan-English See also:

• DICTIONARY

G. Schroeter and published without supervision by any Tibetan See also:

• SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

Hodgson, and grammatical notices of Tibetan (according to Csoma's See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

As a rule none of these letters can be placed before any of the same organic class. See also:

• POST

See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

See also:

• HENDERSON
• HENDERSON, ALEXANDER (1583-1646)
• HENDERSON, EBENEZER (1784-1858)
• HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT (1854-1903)
• HENDERSON, JOHN (1747-1785)

A final s is also occasionally added. Only a limited number of verbs are capable of four changes; some cannot assume more than three, some two, and many only one. This deficiency is made up by the addition of auxiliaries or suffixes. There are no numeral auxiliaries or segregatives used in counting, as in many languages of eastern Asia, though words expressive of a collective or integral are often used after the tens, sometimes after a smaller number. A good See also:

• DEAL

Remusat rather dubiously suggested, while Schmidt and Schiefner maintained, that the silent letters were a See also:

• DEVICE

Thus the valuable testimony of these dialects may be added to the See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

The mediae have become aspirate tenues with a low intonation, which also marks the words having a See also:

• SIMPLE

Grang-po-(cold), spoken t'ammo, is still grang-mo in Takpa, k'See also:

• YAM

The cases referred to above do not, owing to the difference of the causes, yield to any explanation of this kind. And it must be admitted that there are also many cases, some of them caused by irregularities of writing, modification of spelling by decay, and by a probable use of pre-fixes still unascertained, which also resist explanation, though the account just given stands good whatever See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

Several collections of folk songs have also been published by A. Francke from Ladak. A long See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

No mention is anywhere made of a hieroglyphical writing, but on the eastern frontier the See also:

• MEDICINE

(L. A. W.; T. DE L.) See also:

• POLITICAL

(4) The See also:

• FOURTH

Each chief appoints a certain number of civil and military See also:

• OFFICERS

The Tsong-du discusses all matters of importance, especially See also:

• RELATING

Under them are village head-men or tso-pon, headmen or mi-pon, and elders or gyan-po. All are appointed for indefinite periods by the prefects. See also:

• INDUSTRIES

It crosses the Himalayas by the Tang Pass (15,200 f t.), and thence proceeds via Gyantse (13,200 ft.) and the Kharo Pass (16,500 ft.), Yamdok Lake (15,000) to the Tsang-po (12,100 ft.), and See also:

• CROSSING

The exports from Tibet are silver, gold, salt, wool, woollen cloth, rugs, furs, drugs, musk. By the Nepal, Kumaon and Ladak routes go borax, gold and ponies. See also:

• PATNA

Ingots of Chinese silver were sent from Lhasa with a small proportion of gold dust, and an equal weight in mohurs was returned, leaving to the Nepal rajahs, between gold dust and alloy, a good profit. The quality of these coins (weighing about 81 grains See also:

• TROY
• TROY, JEAN FRANCOIS DE (1679–1752)

The most commonly used measures of length are the span (mto), the cubit (km), and the See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

During the first half of the 18th century various Capuchin friars appear to have passed freely between Calcutta and Lhasa (1708) by way of Nepal. They even founded a mission in Lhasa, which, after failing at first, was more firmly established in 1715 and lasted till 1733. In 1716 two See also:

• JESUITS

In 1745 the Capuchin mission finally collapsed after a revival had been attempted in 1741 by a party under Orazio della Penna, of which Cassiano Beligatti was chronicler. We possess some of the results collected by this mission in an excellent short See also:

• TREATISE

He never published anything regarding his journey, and its occurrence was known to few, when his narrative was printed, through the zeal of Mr (afterwards See also:

• SIR

He was, however, amazingly See also:

• CLEVER

On the second journey (1874) he started from Ladak, crossing the vast and elevated plateau by the Tengri Nor and other great lakes, and again reaching Lhasa on the 18th of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

At Shakhang jong he was arrested, and his true character discovered. He managed, nevertheless, to extricate himself, and turning north-eastwards he passed through Chetang, and reached Lhasa by way of Samye monastery. From this city he started for Darjeeling, which he reached on See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

His fourth journey, between November 1883 and October 1885, covered much of northern Tibet, and established the true character of Tsaidam. It was when setting out in 1888 to make an attempt to reach Lhasa that he died. After Prjevalsky's death, V. I. Roborovski, with several companions, explored the western ranges of the Kuen-lun, andcrossed southwards into Tibet, tracing the course of the Kiria river to the north-western plains of the central plateau. The distinguishing feature of these explorations, led by Russian officers, is their high scientific value and the contributions they have offered to the See also:

• BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)

30° 31', when he passed into the See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

Mils ward and then southward across the Altyn Tagh andaieish,188sother ranges to the Tsaidam region. Finally a great 1887. See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

Crossing the Sining-Lhasa road a little south of the Dang la range, and about two days' journey north of Nagchuka, Captain Bower crossed the Su chu, and following a course parallel to the Giama-nu chu, he made his way to Riwoche and thence to Chiamdo, from which town he followed the Lhasa-Tachienlu high road to the latter town, which he reached on the loth of February 1892. The results of Captain Bower's journey were all of first-class importance. See also:

• MISS

Dutreuil de Rhins and Fernand Grenard, both Frenchmen, left See also:

• CHERCHEN

Pushing rapidly on in the direction of Lhasa, when not over 50 M. away from the city (See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

Thence he endeavoured to proceed due east, but was obliged P D asy by the nature of the country to turn south, crossing 1896. Bower's route on the west side of the Aru t'so. He finally completed a valuable survey of an important part of western Tibet. In 1898 a Dutch missionary in China named Rijnhart started with his wife from the vicinity of Koko Nor, with the intention of reaching Lhasa, but at the upper Mekong, to the RiJnhart, east-north-east of the city, he was murdered, and 1898. his wife reached the Chinese province of Sze-ch'uen with great difficulty alone. In 1896 Sven Hedin, a Swede (1865– ), left Kopa, a point about See also:

• LOOM

5, 1901). Rejoining his caravan he turned westward, and passing through the country previously traversed by Bower and Littledale he reached Leh on the loth of December 1901. His careful and detailed maps, lake soundings, hydrographic, geological, meteorological and other investigations gave him the highest rank among modern explorers. On a third journey (1906–1908) he travelled by way of Turkish See also:

• ARMENIA (old Persian Armina, Armenian Hayasdan, or Hayq)

In May 190o See also:

• KOZLOV

G. Hargreaves of the See also:

• SOMERSET, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• SOMERSET, EDMUND BEAUFORT, DUKE OF (c. 1404–1455)
• SOMERSET, EDWARD SEYMOUR, DUKE OF (c. 1506–1552)
• SOMERSET, LORD ROBERT EDWARD HENRY (1776-1842)
• SOMERSET, ROBERT CARR (or KER), EARL OF (e. 1590-1645)

The little that is known of this prehistoric period is gathered from the legends and the more trustworthy sidelights of contemporary Chinese records. From the 11th century B.C. the Chinese used to call by the name of Kiang (or Shepherds) the tribes (about 150 in number) of nomads and shepherds in Koko Nor and the north-east of present Tibet; but their knowledge continued to be confined to the border tribes until the See also:

• SIXTH

He took up his residence in the Yarlung country south of Lhasa. This Yarlung, which borrowed its name from the Yalung of the state of Fanni Tu-bat, is a river which flows into the Yaro-tsangpo (Brahmaputra). The first king and his six successors are known as the seven See also:

• CELESTIAL, OR STELLAR

During his reign the Tibetans obtained their first knowledge of See also:

• ARITHMETIC (Gr. apeOµ7run7, sc. TEXVn, the art of counting, from (ipLBµos, number)

But the See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

See also:

• PAL, KRISTO DAS (1839–1884)

While the dynasty of Khorr6 in Shang-shung and that of Thich'ung in U were running, another authority, destined to become the superior of both, had arisen in Tibet. Khorr6 left his throne to his son Lhade, who was himself succeeded by his three sons, the youngest of whom invited the celebrated Indian Buddhist, Atisha, to leave his monastery Vikramashila for Tibet. where he settled in the great lamaserai of Thoding in Nari. Besides religious books and teachings, he introduced in 1026 the method of computing time by cycles of sixty years, " obtained from the Indian province of Shambala." He was the first of the several chief priests whose authority became See also:

• PARAMOUNT (Anglo-Fr. paramont, up above, par el mont, up or on top of the mountain)

He subdued Tibet proper and Kham, for the continued possession of which he was, however, compelled to fight for several years; but he succeeded in the long run, and with the approval of the court of Peking established a dynasty which furnished twelve rulers in succession. When the Mongol dynasty of China passed away, the Mings confirmed and enlarged the dominion of the Tibetan rulers, recognizing at the same time the chief lamas of the eight principal monasteries of the country. Peace and prosperity gradually weakened the benign rule of the kings of this dynasty, and during the reign of the last but one internecine war was rife between the chiefs and nobles of U and Tsang. This state of things, occurring just as the last rulers of the Ming dynasty of China were struggling against the encroachments of the Manchus, their future successors, favoured the interference of a Khoshot Mongol prince, Tengir To, called in the Tibetan sources king of Koko Nor. The Mongols were interested in the religion of the lamas, especially since 1576, when Altan, khakan of the Tumeds, and his See also:

• COUSIN (Fr. cousin, Ital. cugino, Late Lat. cosinus, perhaps a popular and familiar abbreviation of consobrinus, which has the same sense in classical Latin)
• COUSIN, JEAN (1500-1590)
• COUSIN, VICTOR (1792–1867)

It is probable that the isolation of Tibet was inspired, originally by the Chinese, with the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

The Dalai Lama, inspired by Dorjiev, now took steps to bring on a crisis by provoking England. He See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

(1891); Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet (Washington, 1895) ; Chandra Das, Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet (London, 1899) ; G. Bonvalot, De Paris au Tonkin a leavers le Tibet inconnu (Paris, 1892) ; H. Bower, Geog. Journal, vol. i.; Diary of a Journey across Tibet (Calcutta, 1893) ; Miss A. R. Taylor, National See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

; M. S. Wellby, Geog. Journal, vol. xii. ; Through Unknown Tibet (London, 1898) ; H. H. P. Deasy, Geog. Journal (August 1900) ; Sven Hedin, Through Asia (London, 1898) ; Geog. Journal (April 1902 and April 1909) ; Central Asia and Tibet (London, 1903) ; Adventures in Tibet (London, 1904) ; Trans-Himalaya (London, 1909); S. C. Rijnhart, With the Tibetans in Tent and See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

Journal, vol. ii. : L. A. Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet, or Lamaism (London, 1895) ; " The Falls of the Tsangpo," Geog. Journal (1894); Lhasa and its Mysteries (London, 1905) ; Sir R. Strachey, Geog. Journ. (Feb., March and April19oo) ; N. M. Prjevalsky, " Notes on Gold-washing," Proceedings of Roy. Geog. Soc., vol. vii.

; " Journeys and Discoveries," ibid., vols. x., xi., xii., &c. ; Roborovski, " Journeys and Discoveries," Proceedings of Roy. Geog. Soc., vols., xii. and xiii. ; A. von Rosthorn, " Notes on Tea Trade between China and Tibet," Geog. Journ., vol. vi.; General See also:

• WALKER, FRANCIS AMASA (1840-1897)
• WALKER, FREDERICK (184o--1875)
• WALKER, GEORGE (c. 1618-169o)
• WALKER, HENRY OLIVER (1843— )
• WALKER, HORATIO (1858– )
• WALKER, JOHN (1732—1807)
• WALKER, OBADIAH (1616-1699)
• WALKER, ROBERT (d. c. 1658)
• WALKER, ROBERT JAMES (1801-1869)
• WALKER, SEARS COOK (1805—1853)
• WALKER, THOMAS (1784—1836)
• WALKER, WILLIAM (1824-1860)

Kozlov, " The Russian Tibet Expedition, 1899-1901," Geog. Journ. (May 1902) ; " Through Eastern Tibet and Kam," ibid. vol. xxxi. (1908) ; W. B. Henrsley, " The Flora of Tibet or High Asia," Linnean Soc. Journ. (1902), vol. See also:

• XXXV

See also:

• LANDON, CHARLES PAUL (1760-1826)
• LANDON, LETITIA ELIZABETH (18o2-1838)

Another series of dialects, the Himalayan group, is spoken in the southern Himalayas, from Lahul in the west to Bhutan in the east. Some of these dialects approach Tibetan in structure and grammatical principles, while others have struck out new lines of development, probably under the influence of the dialects spoken by an older population. East of Bhutan, to the north of the Assam valley, we find a third-small group, the North Assam group, which consists of three dialects. A fourth group, the See also:

• BODO

The See also:

• VICEROY (from O. Fr. viceroy, mod. viceroi, i.e. Lat. vice, in place of, and roy or roi, king)

The Dalai Lama had fled with Dorjiev. Partly on this account, and in spite of the attempts of the Chinese authorities to' bring about a See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

They did so, and the Dalai Lama fled to India in February 1910, staying at Darjeeling. Chinese troops followed him to the frontier, and he was deposed by imperial See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

The original home of the Tibeto-Burman race seems to have been on the Upper Hwangho and the Upper Yangtsze-kiang in the Chinese provinces of Sze-ch'uen and Yunnan. The See also:

• OLDEST

The principal point in which they differ is the order of words. The Tibeto-Burman family arranges the words of a sentence in the order of subject, object, verb, while the order in Chinese and Tai is subject, verb, object. Together all these languages form one great family, which is usually called Indo-Chinese. The Indo-Chinese family is usually considered as a typical instance of the so-called isolating languages. The single words do not consist of more than one syllable. They are incapable of inflexion because there are no form-words, which merely denote relation in time and space. Grammatical relations are therefore not indicated by inflexion, but simply by putting together, according to fixed rules, words of which each retains its See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

This development can still be followed in the Tibeto-Burman languages. They have, to some extent, retained the old prefixes. This is, for example, the case in Old Tibetan and some modern Tibetan dialects, while the prefixes have been dropped in the modern dialect of Central Tibet. Compare Old Tibetan b-dun, Balti ab-dun, but Central Tibetan dvtn, seven. The connexion between the drop-ping of prefixes and the development of tones can be seen from the fact that Balti, which has, to some extent, preserved the prefixes, is devoid of tones, while Central Tibetan has developed a system of tones corresponding to that prevailing in Chinese. The same See also:

• XXV1

Thus Tibetan ba, cow, is often pronounced bha and pa. The confusion which might arise from this double tendency is counteracted by the system of tones and the fixed rules for the order of words. The vocabulary is richly varied. Thus the different varieties of some See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

Many of the words added in order to indicate relation in time, space, &c., have, however, ceased to be used as separate words, and have become what can for all practical purposes be called case and tense affixes. The inflexion is therefore at the present date, to a great extent, effected by agglutination, i.e. by adding modifying particles to the base, which itself remains unchanged. Such particles are only put once if there are more than one word put together in the same relation. Thus an adjective and a qualified noun only takes one " case-suffix." Several dialects have in this way developed a complicated system of grammatical forms, partly perhaps under the influence of non-Tibeto-Burman languages.